Part One

For the most part, teaching on the role of women in the early church as well as in present communities of faith has been shaped by the family of origin, tradition, church leaders, and friends rather than by an in-depth study of scripture. Emotionally charged conversations on the topic have only served to confound the issue.  In an effort to better understand scripture in this area, I have restudied this subject and have composed a series of five articles on my findings.  My goal for this series is to combine resources in such a way that the reader can better understand the concerns that surround this issue.  The purpose of this first article is to set the stage for the more in depth study to follow. Basically three texts (1 Cor 11:2-16, 14:34-45, and 1 Tim 2:11-15) (1) have provided the foundation for thought in this area and have been the subject of research for over 100 years. (2)  Even though the meaning of these texts may appear obscure to us, the early readers would have understood their intent. A contextual study of the texts reveals that Paul was addressing problems related to both men and women in the worship of the early church. 

Two approaches to these texts support different interpretations. (3)

1). Hierarchal (two divisions) First division: The Patriarchal approach supports the belief that women must assume a subordinate role in the home, church, and civil life. This was the historical position of the church beginning in the 2nd century CE. (4) Second division: Hierarchal Complementarianism proposes women can serve equal to men in a public manner (e.g. professional, business, and social activities) with the exceptions of the home and church. (5)
2). Egalitarian (Two divisions) First division: Evangelical Feminism is concerned with biblical teachings but contends the texts have not been understood correctly. (6) Second Division: Radical Feminism is not concerned with biblical teachings and supports women as equal to men in all areas including the home and the church.

Significant in examining 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-45; and 1 Tim 2:11-15 is the realization that these texts were written to a certain culture for a specific occasion.  This does not mean these scriptures are untruthful or uninspired but that certain situations shaped them. When the texts are regarded in this way, sometimes it is easy to determine what practices should be retained in today’s world, while other practices are more ambiguous.  For example circumcision was a major issue for Paul as seen in Acts 15 and Galatians, (7) but certainly it is not an issue for the church today. (8)

Approaching any text without presuppositions and prejudices is nearly impossible, consequently these factors influence our interpretations and conclusions. Presuppositions can be clarified by research, but prejudices have to be confronted on a personal level. (9) Good interpretation of a text begins with an intense exegesis analyzing its context, culture, sentence structure, as well as the Greek wording; but as extensive as this process might be it does not solve the problem of hermeneutics (the science of how to apply these texts in a different time and culture). Understanding what a text meant “then” does not solve the issue of what it should mean “now,” however the “then” must be determined before the “now” can be addressed.

I have attempted to give credit for many of the observations in these articles, but this has not been an easy task.  As this research covered a long period of time, it has become more difficult to recall the sources.  At times I have merged my observations with the observations of others. Recorded lectures by Carroll Osburn, Richard Oster, Jack Cottrell, and James Thompson have provided important insights.  If the reader finds anything I have written similar to lectures or writings by these men, they were probably my source.  I am deeply indebted to those (10) who have paved the way on this topic for others to follow.  Anything I am able to add to this discussion has been done standing on their shoulders.  The following sources have been very influential in the composition and conclusions of my endeavor. (11)

• Cottrell, Jack. Gender Roles & the Bible: Creation, the Fall, & Redemption. Joplin, MO: College Press, 1994.
• Fee, Gordon D. 1 & 2 Timothy Titus. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1988.
• Fee, Gordon D. Commentary on 1 Corinthians. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014.
• Keener, Craig S. Paul, Women & Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of Paul. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
• Osburn, Carroll. Women in the Church: Reclaiming the Ideal. Abilene: ACU Press, 2001.
• Osburn, Carroll. Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity. Vols 1 and 2. Joplin: College Press, 1993.
• Oster. Richard. 1 Corinthians. Joplin: College Press, 1995.
• Oster, Richard. “When Men Wore Veils to Worship: The Historical Context of 1 Corinthians 11:4” New Testament Studies, Vol 34, 1988, 481-505.
• Payne, Philip B. Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.
• Trible, Phyllis. God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989.
• Witherington, Ben. Women in the Earliest Churches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Other than the New Testament texts that mention women and ministry of the early church, it is important to consider two additional texts.  One text is Gen 1-3 and the other is Gal 3:28. These two texts have been used to support polar opposite views of women in the early church.

The Role of Women and Gen 1-3 (12)

The information in Genesis 1-3 provides the foundation for Paul’s teachings regarding women in 1 Cor 11:8-12 and 1 Tim 2:13-14.   At the end of each creation, God stated that “it was good.” (13)  However after man was created God declared it was not good for him to be alone (Gen 2:18). The creation story simply states that the woman was created as a suitable helper to the man but does not indicate a status of inferiority (Gen 2:20). She was “beside” and not “below.”

Consider the following five observations: (14)

1. Adam and Eve were both made in the image of God (15) and their creation order should not be viewed as superiority to inferiority but rather incompleteness to completeness. (16) The fact that Eve was created from Adam’s rib does not imply subordination and inferiority any more than Adam’s formation from the earth implies he was inferior or subordinate to the earth.
2. The woman was referred to as man’s “helper fit for him”. This phrase is relational. (17) God is referred to as a helper of people (18) but this certainly does not imply subordination or inferiority. In the Genesis text “Suitable helper” means “corresponding to him,” “equal to” or “like him.” Adam and Eve corresponded to one another mentally, relationally, vocationally and physically.
3. Man was not designed to live in solitude. He had an upward relationship with God, a downward relationship with the animals, but he needed a horizonal relationship—something neither God nor the animals could supply.
4. “Bone of my bones” not only carried the idea of being made from the same substance, but conveyed a covenant pledge to the woman (Gen 2:23; 2 Sam 5:1).
5. Becoming “one flesh” was in reality becoming one person (Gen 2:24). The sexual union was the picture of the marriage. (19)

Significantly, all five of these observations reflect a pre-fall world—God’s intended ideal state.  But with the fall sin entered the world and the original intended equality was distorted into a power struggle (Gen 3:16). Male domination or hierarchism is a result of sin and not part of God’s intended plan at creation.  (20) Eve is often considered the antagonist in the ‘temptation’ scenario (21) but the command not to eat of the tree was first delivered to the man.  After God presented the woman to the man, there is no mention of them being separated and in Gen 1:27 the text shifts from the singular “him” to the plural “them.”  Both were present at the time of the fall. (22) The serpent addressed them in the plural, “You must not eat…” (3:1).  The woman responded in first person plural (we) in 3:2. In 3:4 the serpent responded again in the plural, “You will not surely die”.  In 3:6b the man is mentioned as being “with her”. (23) Eve’s gave Adam the fruit (24) but there is no evidence she “tempted” him. (25) Both Adam and Eve were equally expelled; he would toil the earth and she would experience pain with childbirth and “her desire would be unto her husband” (Gen 3:15).  The exact meaning of this phrase is problematic at best.  

Trible summarized it this way:

The man will not reciprocate the woman’s desire; instead he will rule over her. Thus she lives in unresolved tension.  Where once there was mutuality, now there is a hierarchy of division. (26)

Exegesis of the passage is best left to another time.  What is significant to this writing is the intended equality of man and woman at creation and at the fall. (27)

The Role of Women and Gal 3:28 (28)

Both feminists and hierarchists have used the Galatian text to support their respective views of women in the early church. In reality it supports neither.   The issue in Galatians was the salvation of the Gentiles.

To the Jewish Christians circumcism was one of three boundary markers (29) necessary for salvation, and they were having difficulty conceding it was not essential for the salvation of the Gentiles (Acts 15:2). Paul strongly counters this teaching in 3:1-4:7. (30) Beginning with 3:8-9 he  affirms the blessing of all nations through the promise to Abraham and states that “those who have faith are blessed. The inheritance did not depend on law, but on the promise, and by faith the promises are received (3:14).  By being baptized into Christ Jesus, (3:26-27) they were clothed and had been made one regardless of who they were (Jew or Greek, slave or free, male or female).  Everyone had full equality and access to salvation in Christ.  As a result of their common salvation, the Gentiles were “Abraham’s seed and heirs according to the promise” (3:29). 

In summary, 3:28 taken in context affirms salvation is accessible for all people regardless of their place in society, cultural affiliation, or sex (31)  (3:26). Paul stressed identity (“you are” and unity (“all one in Christ Jesus”).

Aristotelian Influence on Hierarchal Thought

Aristotle lived from 384 to 322 BCE and was a pupil of Plato. He taught the male had final authority over the wife, children, slaves and family matters. (32) In an effort to provide unity in the Roman empire and regulate marriage, Augustus adopted this concept of male supremacy.  Paul’s letter to the Ephesians shows his opposition to this model. In Eph 5:15, Paul urged his readers to walk wisely and then followed with five imperatival participial phrases to describe spirit filled people (Eph 5:21-33). (33) The last phrase states they were to submit to one another (Eph 5:21). This submission was not one way, but mutual.  Paul then uses this phrase as a basis to explain the husband/wife relationship, (34) the father/son relationship, and the slave/master/relationship.

Women and the Torah (35)

Throughout the Hebrew Bible God uses women to accomplish his work. (36) For example, Deborah was both a judge and a prophetess in Israel (Judg 4-5).  She even provided military leadership in a victory over the Canaanites. (37)  Huldah was a prophetess who sent messages to the king (2 Kgs 22:14-20). (38)

Women and the Ministry of Jesus (39-40)

Even though Jesus lived in a hierarchal world, women played an important part in his ministry.  (41-42)

1. Some women followed Jesus with the twelve (Luke 8:1-3a).
2. Women provided financial support for Jesus (Luke 8:3b).
3. He discussed spiritual matters with a Samaritan woman (John 4:1-26).
4. He did not shun sinful women (Luke 7:36-50).
5. Women attempted to care for his needs (Matt 27:55-56).
6. Women were at the cross (Matt 23:27).
7. Women were the first witnesses of his resurrection (Mark 16:1-12).

Background for Paul’s View of Women (43-44)

Because Paul is the author of three major texts on the role of women (45) in the early church it is important to examine the factors that influenced his thinking.

First, Paul was trained as a rabbi at the feet of Gamaliel who was considered to be one of the greatest rabbis in the first century (Acts 5:34-39; 22:3).  Unlike his Jewish contemporaries, Gamaliel had a healthy respect for women.

Second, Paul maintained a high view of the Torah (Rom 7:14-22), and he repeatedly challenged Christians to submit to God’s law (Rom 8:5-7). He declared in the presence of Felix that he believed “everything that agrees with the Law and that is written in the Prophets” (Acts 24:14), and was concerned about “teachers of the law” who did “not know what they were talking about” (1 Tim 1:7).   Paul’s respect for Torah and his knowledge of the creation story were foundational as he dealt with the issues facing the churches at Corinth and Ephesus (1 Cor 6:20, Eph 5:31).

Third, because Jesus was his example (1 Cor 11:1), Paul, as Jesus had, attempted to respect women throughout his ministry. (46)

Women and the Early Church

It is impossible to study the early church without noticing the significant part that women played in its development and survival.  Women, evidently wealthy women, opened their homes for church assemblies: e.g. Mary in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12); Lydia in Philippi (Acts 16:14-15, 40); and the Colossians were to greet “Nympha and the church in her house“(Col 4:15).  Priscilla and her husband Aquilla were important Christians both in Corinth and Ephesus (Acts 18:2-3, 26). Euodia and Syntyche worked side by side with Paul (Phil 4:3). (47) The husband and wife team of Andronicus and Junias were in prison with Paul and were considered outstanding missionaries. (48)  Paul mentioned several women—Mary, Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis—who worked hard in ministry (Rom 16:6-12); and when he wrote to Titus he associated women with “sound doctrine” (Titus 2:1-5). (49) Tabitha was supportive of widows (50) and the poor (Acts 9:36-43), and is the only female referred to as a disciple.  Tabitha’s work appears to be very similar to the work of the seven men in Acts 6:1-7.  Finally, women supported others during Jesus’ ministry (Luke 8:3). (51)

Phoebe and the Church in Cenchrea (52-53)

“I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a servant of the church in Cenchrea.
I ask you to receive her in the Lord in a way worthy of the saints and to
give her any help she may need from you, for she has been a great
help to many people, including me.” Rom 16:1,2

Phoebe’s role in the church in Cenchrea is dependent on the meaning of the word servant (διάκονον.) (54) At times the term is used as a general description but it can also indicate an official “office.”  (55) The word διάκονον is used in the following texts in what appears to be a general meaning:

1. Paul used the term in a broad way in 1 Cor 3:5; 2 Cor 3:6; 6:4; 11:15, 23; Gal 2:17.    
2. It can be assumed Phoebe was the courier of the Roman letter (Rom 16:1) but that does not merit its technical meaning.  In Eph 6:21 Tychicus, who carried the Ephesian letter, was called a “faithful servant in the Lord” (56) but would not necessarily be regarded as holding an “office” as found in 1 Tim 3:8-13. (57)

Other texts contain the same term but seem to indicate an official office: 

1. In 1 Tim 3:8-13 the Greek word translated as elder (ἐπισκόποις) and the Greek word translated as deacon (διακόνοις) are used as qualifications for elders (overseers or bishops) and deacons or servants. 
2. In Phil 1:1, Paul addressed elders (ἐπισκόποις) and deacons (διακόνοις). (58) Perhaps other churches were organized the same way. If the servants of Phil 1:1 were “deacons,” Phoebe was a deaconess of the church in Cenchrea.
3. The phrase “of the church in Cenchrea” (τῆς ἐκκλησίας τῆς ἐν Κεγχρεαῖς) indicates a more specific use of servant (διάκονον). If Paul intended to convey Phoebe was  merely acting as a servant in the church and not an official office, he would probably have chosen either διακονῶν (translated as “service” or “ministering”) as he did in Rom 15:25 (59) or διακονίαν (translated as “ministry” or “service”) as he did in 1 Cor 16:15. (60)  If Paul meant to describe Phoebe as a servant only in the sense of a tireless worker on the behalf of others, he could have used ἐκοπίασεν (translated as “worked hard” or ”labored”) as he did in Rom 16:6 (61)  (1 Cor 16:16; 1 Thess 5:12).

Because servant (διάκονον) comes after the participle “being” (οὖσαν) and it is limited by the phrase “the church in Cenchrea” and indicates Phoebe had a recognized position of responsibility (62) or in some sense an “office.” (63)

4. Significantly, the first mention of a deaconess outside the New Testament was around 115.(64)   In a letter to Trajan, Pliny mentioned torturing two female slaves who were described as “deaconesses.” (65)

It is uncertain how servant (διάκονον) should be applied to Phoebe. (66) In 16:2 Paul refers to her as a “helper” (67) (προστάτις) translated “a great help”. (68)  Because the word helper (προστάτις) implied financial giving, certainly she had a special place in the life of the church in Cenchrea and the ministry of Paul. (69)

Prophetesses in the Early Church

Religious freedom of women far preceded the Greco-Roman world as evidenced by the prophetesses of Delphi which dates to the first century BCE. (70) Certainly the slave girl in Ephesis verifies prophetesses were not uncommon at the time of the early church (Acts 16:16-18). (71) Peter quoted the Hebrew Bible when he mentioned women prophesying in the days to come (Acts 2:17; Joel 2:28-32). (72)  Specifically, the following women prophesied in the early church:

(1) Elisabeth Luke 1:41-45.

(2) Anna Luke 2:36-38.

(3) Philip’s four daughters Acts 21:9.

(4) Corinthian women 1 Cor 11:2-16. (73)

Conclusion

Hopefully the preceding remarks will set the stage for the succeeding study.  Paul was a trained Jewish rabbi sent to preach to a Gentile world.  Throughout his ministry, he emphasized unity and equality in Christ for all people—regardless of their station in life or sex.  Certainly this had not been the case with women in the Graeco-Roman world as a whole or in ancient Judaism. Male domination had been pronounced for thousands of years.  (74-75-76)

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Footnotes

1. Both men and women in the three texts were exhibiting a lack of respect for culture and disrupting the assembly.

2. Because of a high view and respect for the scriptures, I felt this study was necessary.

3. Carroll Osburn, Women in the Church: Reclaiming the Ideal. (Abilene: College Press, 2001), 49-85.

4. The issue is to whether or not this was the position of the first century church. One of the major influences of second century Christianity was Neo-Platonism. Mankind was meant to look beyond the moral and ethical values of the Bible to a spiritual realm.  Anything that would hinder one from reaching this realm was evil.  Woman was seen as something that would hinder or impede this quest and as a result was seen as evil. Marriage was for the producing of children and was not to be enjoyed. You only married one time.

5. Andreas Kostenberger, Thomas Schreiner, and H. Scott Baldwin. ed. Women in the Church: A Fresh Analysis of 1 Timothy 2:9-15. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995. Craig Keener, Paul, Women & Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of Paul. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.

6. Richard Clark Kroeger and Catherine Clark Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman: Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992.

7. Gal 2:3; 5:1-12; Acts 15:1

8. I do not know of any tracts or of any sermons written on the dangers of circumcision.

9. Sometimes emotions can have a major influence on biblical conclusions.

10. I am especially indebted to Carroll Osburn for his book, the two volumes he edited, and the three lectures he gave at Pepperdine Lectureship in 2002.  The two volumes of Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity have the best research on this subject.

11. Someone has said: “Plagiarism is stealing from one person and research is stealing from 50 people” and “originality is forgetting where you got it.” I have attempted to footnote some of my resources, but I am not always sure where I learned something or if some of the information were my own observations.  These five articles are the result of an extended period of learning.  The resources I have listed have had the most profound effect on the writing of the five articles. I am deeply indebted to those who have written and spoken on these texts.  I have attempted to write the five articles for the “man in the pew” in order from him to be able to better understand these difficult texts.

12. The two most helpful sources for this study were: Rick R. Marrs, “in the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3)” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed. Carroll D. Osburn; Joplin, MO.: College Press, 1995): 1,1-36.  Osburn, Women in the Church:109-130

13. Gen 1:10,12, 25

14. Marrs, “In the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3),” 31. Osburn, Women in the Church, 123.

15. “Woman is created as a companion (neither subordinate nor superior) who alleviates man’s isolation through identity.”  Marrs, “in the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3),” 20.

16. Osburn, Women in the Church, 118.

17. Marrs, “in the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3),” 20.

18. Exod 18:4; Deut 33:7, 26; Psa 20:3; 33:20; 70:5; 115:9-11; 121:1; 146:5.

19. 1 Cor 6:15-20

20. This point is dramatically emphasized as the Pharisees tested Jesus in regard to a lawful divorce (Matt 19:1-12).  Jesus appealed to God’s pre-fall view of marriage (Gen 2:24) rather than the post-fall teaching about it (Deut 24:1-4). 

21. “Paul does not draw from Gen 1-3 a universal principle from the historical Eve, but an ad hoc analogy from the later caricature of Eve in the Jewish tradition.” Osburn, Women in the Church, 249. See Randall Chestnutt, “Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman Era” Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (e. Carroll D. Osburn: Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993): 1.102 “the portrait of Eve as one constantly weeping, ignorant, perplexed, vulnerable to sin, and dependent upon the males around her for insight bears some relation to the way women were actually perceived and treated in the authors’ and redactors’ own times and places.”

22. Both were: created in God’s image (1:27), charged with ruling over creation (1:26,28),charged with being fruitful (1:28), received a blessing from God (1:28), given food to eat (1:29), eat the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (2:17; 3:6), had eyes opened (3:7), knew they were naked (3:7, made clothes (3:7), questioned by God (3:9-12, 13) received consequences for their sins (3:16, 17-19)

23. This understanding of the temptation story is important in dealing with 1 Tim 2:14.

24. Marrs,” In the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3),” 24-26.

25. “A straightforward reading of Gen 2 seriously undermines attempts to read that chapter hierarchically.” Marrs, “in the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3),” 31.

26. Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality, 128.

27. God’s future and eternal plan is for the re-creation of the Garden of Eden.  In the Garden of Eden, Adam and Eve had access to God and walked with him (Gen 3:8).  There was no death or sin (Gen 3:17). The Garden was “pleasing to the eye” and was “good for food” in addition there was the tree of life (Gen 2:9; 3:22).  Man had the responsibility to take care of it (Gen 2:15). God’s plan for the future of his people appears to be a re-creation of the Garden of Eden.  Heaven is described as a paradise (Rev 2:7; 2 Cor 12:4) with the tree of life (Rev 2:7; 22:2, 14, 19). Man will have the responsibility to serve (Rev 7:15; 22:3). “There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain” (Gen 2:7; Rev 21:4; Heb 2:14). There will no longer be a sea because man will have access to God and will be dwelling with him (Rev 21:1, 3).  With the restoration of the Garden of Eden, the restoring of the original intent he had for man and woman. The availability of the tree of life in the paradise of God was promised to the faithful (Rev 2:7).  Not everything will be restored such as marriage between man and woman (Matt 22:29-32).

28. There is a possibility similar words were used at a baptism.  Baptism and the wording of “Jews or Greeks slave or free” (1 Cor 12:13) would correspond to the wording in Gal 3:28. “Putting” on and the mentioning of groups is found in Col 3:9-11.

29. The other two boundary markers were the Sabbath and food laws.

30. Paul connected sonship with Christ Jesus (3:26a). Paul negated the need for circumcision for salvation with two practical statements:

    For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. The only thing that counts is faith expressing itself through love (5:6).

    Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is the new creation (6:15).

31. Osburn, Women in the Church, 137.

32. “He argued that the superiority of the male made him a fit ruler over slaves, females, and children…The male possesses complete intellectual virtue, while slaves, females, and children have only a share of it which is appropriate to their subordinate roles.” Gregory E Sterling, “Women in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds,” Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed. Carroll D. Osburn; Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993) `1, 74.

33. Speaking, singing, making melody, and giving thanks.

34. Because the dominate role of the husband was the foundation of Aristotelian teaching, he devoted most of his time to the role the husband was to play in the marriage—going directly against the hierarchal model of his day. His directive was simple:  the husband should love his wife “just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her” (Eph 5:25).  In reference to the conduct of slaves, Paul urged them to obey their masters “just as” they “obeyed Christ (6:5). See Eph 4:32 and Rom 15:7. Husbands were “to love their wives like their own bodies” (Eph 5:28). Husbands were to feed and care for their wives “just as Christ does the church” (Eph 5:29). Paul’s teaching could have been known a “progressive” for his day in his understanding of gender.  He started with his analogy of Jesus and the church analogous to husband and wife. He focused his teachings on what the husband was to do for the wife that would result in her respecting him. What Paul said the husband should do for the wife flies in the face of the hierarchal system of Aristotle.  Even though some of his teachings were aimed at dealing with the influence of Aristotle, he did not encourage an overthrown of the Greco-Roman understanding of household codes. Paul’s emphasis on submission in the household codes was central to his understanding. Keener, Paul, Women and Wives, vii-viii.     

35. Three examples in the New Testament: (1) Anna Luke 2:36. (2) Philip’s four daughters Acts 21:9. (3) Elizabeth Luke 1:41-45; 1:67.

36. Miriam (Exod 15:20) and Isaiah’s wife (Isa 8:3).

37. Osburn, Women in the Church, 266-267.

38. General statements can be made keeping in mind the differences in culture, location, and time. Even though Mexico and Canada share the continent with America, treatment of women might not be observed in the same way. Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 244-245.

39. Some have tried to make Jesus as the great liberator of women from first century oppression, but some of this oppression is not accurate.

40. Randall D. Chestnut, “Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman Era” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed) Carroll D. Osburn Vol 1 (Joplin: College Press, 1993), 130. 

    “Considerable diversity existed in attitudes toward and roles of Jewish women in the Greco-Roman period…Any study of women in the NT and early Christianity which proceeds on the assumption of a monolithic model of ancient Judaism is misinformed and distortive.”

41. “Jesus did not overthrow hierarchism, as some feminists suggest. Instead, he worked within the hierarchal society of his time.  He gave women greater respect, freedom, recognition, involvement and responsibilities.  This view of Jesus continued in the earliest churches for a limited time before the patristic churches reverted to the patriarchalism that has become a dominant part of our Christian heritage for centuries…it (egalitarianism JJ) is recovered in the thinking of Jesus and is behind much of the practice of the earliest churches, but was later lost again in the strongly patriarchal world of the eastern Mediterranean.” Osburn, Women in the Church, 260, 262.

42. Osburn, Women in the Church, 125.

43. Paul used the creation story to deal with immorality and the description of a Christian marriage.

    When Paul wanted to magnify the salvation found in Jesus, he contrasted Adam with Jesus in Rom 5:12-19. Marrs concluded his exposition of Gen 1-3 with the following remark:

    for the God of Gen 1-3 is a God of infinite grace and mercy, a God who repeatedly calls his creation to realign with his purposes and intent. Most dramatically, he ultimately exhibits that posture himself in the gift of his own Son. Marrs, “In the Beginning: Male and Female (Gen 1-3).” 36.

44. The following source was helpful in the writing of this section of the article: Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ, 31-111.

45. 1 Cor 11:1-16; 14:34-34; 1 Tim 2:11-12.

46. John 4:14-26; 11:25-26; Mark 3:34-35; 7:10-12; 12:49-50; Luke 13:16

47. They were mentioned in connection with men and other workers.

48. The word “apostle” is used in a non-technical sense (Acts 14:14; 2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The word apostle is a transliteration (apostolos) rather than a translation.  RSV used “men” which does not appear in the text.

49. Most of Paul’s ministry was in the regions influenced by Hellenistic culture.

    “The treatment of Hellenistic women varied dramatically from region to region; from Sparta to Rome, where women had political responsibilities, to Athens where wives of the wealthy were essentially imprisoned.” Philip B. Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 31.    

50. “More than any other Evangelist, Luke stresses Jesus’ concern for widows, a particularly disadvantaged group of women (cf. Luke 2: 36-38, 4:26.7:11-17, 18:1-8, 20, 47, 21.1-4).” Witherington, Women in the Earliest Churches, 130.

51. Witherington, Women in the Earliest Churches, 150-151.

52. Prior to the Council of Nicea (325 CE) there were no examples of the feminine form of servant.  In the earlier period the masculine form was used for both men and women. Barry L. Blackburn, “The Identity of the ‘Women’ in 1 Tim. 3:11” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed. Carroll D. Osburn Joplin, MO: College Press, 1995), 1:303. 

53. The church at Cenchrea was probably started while Paul was in Corinth and served as Corinth’s port on the isthmus.

54. The word is used in the context of helping the poor or providing food. It is used in the form of a verb (Matt 8:15; Luke 8:3; 10:40; 12:37; 17:8; 22:27; John 12:2; Acts 6:2) and as a noun (Luke 10:40; Acts 6:2; 2 Cor 8:4; 9:1).

55. 1 Tim 3:11

56.  πιστὸς διάκονος ἐν κυρίῳ

57. A possible description of a female servant is found in 1 Tim 3:11. Blackburn, “The Identity of the ‘Women” in 1 Tim 3:11”1: 313.

58.  ἐπισκόποις καὶ διακόνοις,

59. Νυνὶ δὲ πορεύομαι εἰς Ἰερουσαλὴμ διακονῶν τοῖς ἁγίοις (Rom 15:25)

60. Παρακαλῶ δὲ ὑμᾶς, ἀδελφοί· οἴδατε τὴν οἰκίαν Στεφανᾶ, ὅτι ἐστὶν ἀπαρχὴ τῆς Ἀχαΐας καὶ εἰς διακονίαν τοῖς ἁγίοις ἔταξαν ἑαυτούς (1 Cor 16:15)

61. ἀσπάσασθε Μαρίαν, ἥτις πολλὰ ἐκοπίασεν εἰς ὑμᾶς (Rom 16:6)

62. “Romans 16:1-2 is clearly a statement of recommendation on Phoebe’s behalf. Since she bears Paul’s letter, she may be called upon to explain anything ambiguous in the letter when the Romans read it, and Paul wishes them to understand that she is indeed qualified to explain his writing. He argues this point by citing her church offices.” Keener, Paul, Women & Wives, 238.

63. James Walters, “”Phoebe and “Junia (s)”—Rom. 16:1-2.7” Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity Carroll D. Osburn (ed) (Joplin: College Press,1993). 1:181-182.

64. Pliny,Ep.10.96.8.

65. “The term diakonon is actually masculine gender but is used of Phoebe who is a woman. The same word is used in 1 Timothy 3:8 and Philippians 1:1—the only other references to deacons in the New Testament. He does not use the Greek term “deaconness” (diakonissa) because the word did not exist in the ancient world till 325 AD and females who served as “deacons” (diakonoi) in the ancient world are called “deacons” (from diakonos, masculine gender) rather than “deaconnesses.” This is the only place in the NT where the phrase “deacon of the church” appears. She is more than just a “sister” (cf. Philemon 2), but a diakonon. If Phoebe were “Philip,” we would automatically identify this individual as a “deacon.” But because it is Phoebe, we wince at the possible identification.” The source of this quote is a blog article entitled A Snapshot of Women Serving God (Romans 16) by John Mark Hicks (JohnMarkHicksministries)

66. I am deeply indebted to the following reference for much of information contained in this appendix. James Walters,” Phoebe and Junia(s) Rom 16:1-2,” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed. Carroll D. Osburn: Joplin, MO: College Press, 1995),1:167-185.

67. RSV: “a helper of;” NEB: “a good friend;” NJB: “come to the help of;” NIV: “a great help to.”

68. 16:2 ἵνα αὐτὴν προσδέξησθε ἐν κυρίῳ               ἀξίως τῶν ἁγίων     καὶ παραστῆτε αὐτῇ ἐν ᾧ ἂν  ὑμῶν

             that you may receive    in the Lord in way worthy of the saints   and     to give    her whatever of you

    χρῄζῃ     πράγματι·     καὶ γὰρ αὐτὴ προστάτις πολλῶν ἐγενήθη καὶ ἐμοῦ αὐτοῦ.

    She may need matter and for she     a helper    of many became and of myself

69. Luke 7:2-5

70. Sterling, “Women in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (323 BCE-138 CE),” 1:85.                               

71.    Gregory E. Sterling, “Women in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (323 BCE-138 CE),” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity (ed. Carroll D. Osburn: Joplin, MO: College Press, 1993), Vol 1: 91.             

72. Huldah 2 Kgs 22:11-20

73. Paul acknowledged women prophesying and he did not condemn them, but only their violation of cultural norms.  The problem was not gender issue, but a cultural issue.