Contextual Understanding of the Role of Women in the Early Church Pt. 3 – 1. Cor. 14

Part One

Introduction

Soon after Paul began his first letter to the Corinthian church, he addressed the immaturity that plagued them and the problems that ensued because of that immaturity. In 3:1-3, he calls them “infants in Christ,” needing “milk” (instead of “solid food” [Heb 5:14]), and “acting like mere humans.” Three times he calls them “worldly” (“people of the flesh” NRSV).  Throughout the letter, Paul continues to directly and indirectly revisit this theme.   Significantly, there is no mention of elders who might have been able to deal with the problems within the church in Corinth, and perhaps that is one reason Paul defaults to Christ as the head of the body and an example of how to achieve unity. ¹Paul places a strong emphasis on Christ throughout the book (11:1).  He mentions it is possible to “sin against Christ” (8:12) and “sin against the body and blood of the Lord” (11:27). Problems in the Corinthian church can be traced not having the mind of Christ (2:16), following the wrong teachers and a dependence on wisdom of the world (1:12, 21).  

Of special interest to this article is how the theme of immaturity applies to spiritual gifts and the assembly, specifically the chaos in the assembly.  In 11:2-34, Paul emphasizes the need to respect each other.   He begins 12:1 with “now about the gifts of the spirit.”  The term “now about” (Περὶ δὲ 7:1, 25; 8:1, 12:1, 16:1; 16:12) indicates answers to questions they had asked.  Paul gives an explanation of these gifts in the rest of the chapter and emphasizes that the variety of spiritual gifts were to unite the body—not serve as a source of division (12:12-14, 19-20).  He stresses individuality of gifts in 1 Corinthians 12 by using the term “one” (ἑνὶ) six times in three verses (12:12-14).   Notably he follows these comments with a discussion on the importance of love in 1 Corinthians 13.  This sets the stage for 1 Corinthians 14 where once again he emphasizes their immaturity when addressing problems in the assembly (14:22-35).  He instructs them to “stop acting like children” (14:20) and to start thinking like “adults.”   

Basically, 1 Corinthians 14 can be divided into two sections:

1. 1 Corinthians 14:1-21 explains the superiority of prophecy over gifts of tongues and interpretation. 
2. 1 Corinthians 14:22-40 provides direction for the use of gifts in an orderly assembly.² Paul chose to separate the “respect for culture issue” in 1 Corinthians 11 from the “chaotic issue” of 1 Corinthians 14 because they were different problems.  The issues of 1 Corinthians 11 needed a minor “tweaking” with their understanding of head coverings whereas the issues in 1 Corinthians 14 involved more people and required some major changes and corrections.

Chaotic Assembly
(Structure of the Assembly)

When we view the early church assembly through our 21^st century lens, we often forget that early churches usually met in houses.  The number of people in each house church varied based upon the size and location of the house.  With the conversion of Crispus, who was a leader in the synagogue, it is possible the synagogue could also have become a meeting place for believers (Jas 2:2; Acts 8:3; 9:2; 16:3-5; 18:8; 26:11).  Traditionally, women were not commanded to learn the Torah but could be present in the synagogue.  We do know the family of Jesus (Matt 13:55-56; Mark 6:3), as well as “God-fearing Greeks” and “prominent women” were sometimes present in the synagogue (Acts 17:4; 18:26).  Similar God-fearing and/or prominent women could have been in the assembly mentioned in 1 Corinthians 14.

Whether or not the “whole church” (14:23) ever came together in one place is a possibility (Rom 16:23) but was unknown.  The visitors were friends and relatives of the believers (Acts 10:24) or unbelieving spouses of the believers (7:12-14), and were comprised of three diverse groups:  

 (1) foreigners 14:11 (βάρβαρος /barbarous Rom 1:14; Acts 28:2; Col 3:11)
(2) strangers or inquirers or outsiders 14:16, 23-24. (ἰδιῶται /idiotai)³ “a person who is relatively unskilled or inexperienced in some field of knowledge…one who is not knowledgeable about some particular group’s experience, one not in the know, outsider.” BDAG, 468.  Called an “inquirer” in NIV footnote. Some have described this person as not an expert or “layman” (as opposed to an expert) or a “stranger”. The word (ἰδιῶται) was used in Acts 4:13 to describe Peter and John as “ordinary” (untrained) men and in 2 Cor 11:6 it is translated not being “trained” (ἰδιώτης). “Unbeliever” is found in 14:22b and 14:23 but the words are separated by ἰδιῶται (idiotai). This indicates he did not belong to the community but was an alien or outsider who was attending the gathering. Colin Brown (ed), O. Flender, “Layman,” The New International Dictionary of the New Testament Theology. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan 1971)Vol 2. 456-457.   
(3) unbelievers 14:23-24 (ἄπιστοι /apistoi 7:12-16; 10:27; 2 Cor 4:4; 6:15) 

Misuse of Speaking in Tongues and Prophecy

Paul attributes part of the disruption in the assembly to a misunderstanding of how speaking in tongues and prophecy were to be used.  If 14:22 and 26 are taken at face value, the reader might be led to incorrect conclusions.  At times when Paul wanted to drive home a point, he chose wording that reflected what they were doing not what should be done (4: 6-8).  Such is the case in 14:22: 

Tongues, then are a sign, not for believers but for unbelievers.  Prophecy, however, is  for the believers, not for the unbelievers.⁴ “That means that tongues are a sign of God’s power, not for those who are unbelievers, but to those who already believe. Preaching the word of God, on the other hand, is a sign of God’s power to those who do not believe rather than to believers.”  (J. B. Phillips 1 Cor 14:22) Note: This translation reversed the other translations. Some have thought a scribe (or Luke heard it wrong) copied the text incorrectly or that Paul misspoke.  

The information preceding and following 14:22 supports the exact opposite—using tongues with believers and prophecy with the unbelievers.  His explanation begins with the phrase “if therefore” (Ἐὰν οὖν); 14:23a, ASV, ESV, NRSV).   Unbelievers would not understand the tongues without an interpreter and their response would be “you are out of your mind” (14:23).⁵ Paul urges his readers to desire the gift of prophecy (14:1). Tongue speakers edified themselves whereas the one who prophesied edified the church (14:4). The tongue speaker does not speak to men, but to God (14:2).  The one who prophesies is greater than the one who speaks in a tongue (14:5). Paul desires his readers to excel in gifts that build up the church (14:12). See 2 Cor 8:7. Assembling and encouragement are connected together (Heb 10:25).  The assembly was used as a tool for evangelism (14:24-25). Prophecy could edify the church (14:4-5).   When Paul corrected their conduct in worship, he wanted to make sure the purpose of edification and encouragement were accomplished. Even in the Hebrew Bible, worship was designed to change the worshipper (Isa 6:1-6; 58:1-7; Amos 5:21-27; Jer 7:3-11; Mic 6:6-8; Heb 10:1-25). On the other hand, prophecy would convict (ἐλέγχεται) unbelievers of sin and cause them to “fall down and worship God exclaiming God is really among you” (14:24-25). ⁶ Jesus taught the coming spirit would “convict the world of sin (ἐλέγξει τὸν κόσμον περὶ ἁμαρτίας John 16:8).  Succinctly put, the church was using the wrong gift on the wrong audience! 

1 Cor 14:26 further describes the chaotic assembly caused by parts of the worship being disorganized.  The activities were not wrong—they were just being done without regard for each other.   The resulting chaos defeated mutual edification (14:3-4). If drunk believers were present the chaos escalated (11:21).  There is also the possibility that new converts were bringing their pagan backgrounds into the assembly (12:2; Col 3:7; Eph 5:8; 1 Thess 1:9; 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12) ⁷ Sometimes in pagan worship women were known to cry out. The situation in 1 Corinthians 14 could have been a hold-over from the pagan worship (1 Cor 12:2). See Acts 19:17-20. causing further chaos and division (1:10; 11:18).

Correcting the Chaotic Assembly

Before beginning his correction of the chaotic church assembly (14:20-26), Paul reiterates the need to follow the way of love that he had presented in 1 Corinthians 13 (14:1a).  In 14:4-5, he stresses the need to “edify” the church by using two similar phrases: ἐκκλησίαν οἰκοδομεῖ (14:4 “edifies the church”) and ἐκκλησία οἰκοδομὴν (14:5 “church may be edified”).  The word “edify” is the root of “edifice” or building. Paul had indicated the church was a building in 3:5. This term (edification) is used seven times in 1 Corinthians 14 (3, 4 twice, 5, 12, 17, 26) and the chaotic assembly was not helpful in the construction of “God’s building.” 

In 14:2-6, Paul discusses the benefits and uses of tongues and prophecy in a general way and then illustrates his comments by using instruments as an example of the need for understanding (14: 6-9).  Musical instruments provide different sounds so they can be identified, and even the same instrument (i.e. bugle) can make sounds that mean “charge” or perhaps “go to sleep.”   The assembly should edify or build “up the church” (14:4-5, 12b, 26b), and the activities within the assembly should also be understood (14:10-19). 

The section of 14:26-40 provides the heart of Paul’s corrections.  Within these 15 verses Paul uses 14 commands (imperatives), thereby signifying their importance.   He makes five corrections for the assembly: 

(1) The number of tongue speakers and prophets were limited to three each. The assembly should not consist of all tongue speakers nor all prophets.
(2) If there was not an interpreter, (14:28) the tongue speaker should be silent (σιγάτω) “and speak to himself ⁸ The NRSV reads “themselves” and the CEB reads “they” instead of “himself” that is used in the NIV. ἑαυτῷ is a personal pronoun, dative, singular, masculine of ἑαυτοῦ.  ἕκαστος is translated “each of you” in 14:26 and it is adjective, nominative, singular, masculine. A pronoun can refer to either a man or woman.  The masculine pronoun is the default gender unless there is a specific reason to use the feminine or neuter.  If the masculine is intended, it is usually clear from the context. and to God” (14:27-28). 
(3) When one prophet spoke, the other prophets should be silent (σιγάτω) (14:29). ⁹ Matt 7:15; 24:11; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 John 4:1 When a prophet received a revelation from God and ¹⁰ According to 1 Sam 19:20 Hebrew prophets could make mistakes and sometimes had to wait for God to answer (2 Sam 7:3-5; 2 Kgs 2:16-17; Jer 28:10-13).  wanted to share it with the assembly (Acts 11:28; 21:10), Paul demanded it to be done in a non-chaotic manner.
(4) Others were to “weigh carefully” what was spoken (14:29).
(5) If the women of 14:34-35 wanted “to learn something,” (CEB, NKJV, ASV) they were to remain silent (σιγάτωσαν) and to “ask their husbands at home.”  

Three groups received the same message: Be silent!¹¹

Comparison of the tongue speakers, prophets, and women:

Tongue Speakers

1. Two or three.
2. One at a time with an interpreter.
3. Keep quiet (sigato).
4. Speak to himself and to God.

Prophets

1. Two or three.
2. Others weigh what is said.
3. Keep quiet (sigato).
4. Instructed and encouraged.

Women

2. Be submissive.
3. Keep quiet (sigatosav).
4. Ask husband and not be disgraceful.

Note: Sigato (σιγάτω) is a third person singular present imperative and sigatosav (σιγάτωσαν) is a third person plural present imperative. After each imperative, a positive statement of action was given. The common issue for all three groups was disruption in the assembly.

 (1) Tongue speakers: 14:28 σιγάτω: “keep quiet.”  
(2) Prophets:14:30 σιγάτω: “should stop.” 
(3) Women:14:34 σιγάτωσαν: “remain silent.”  

The command to be “silent” applied ONLY to tongue speakers and prophets who were being disruptive by speaking without an interpreter or prophesying while another was prophesying. The command for women to be “silent” applied ONLY to the women who were being disruptive. Silence was necessitated by circumstances and not by gender.

Throughout this section, Paul emphasized order: “For God is not a God of confusion (confusion NKJV, ESV, NRSV) but of peace” (14:33, 40). ¹² Oster, 1 Corinthians, 353. “Unlike several pagan deities who engendered chaotic activities in worship and group meetings, the God of the Christian church in Corinth was no such deity.” Even though 14:32-33 directly addresses the prophets, given the thesis, it would apply to everyone. It is also noteworthy that the spontaneous disruptive conduct by believers could not be blamed on their gifts: “The spirits of prophets are subject to the control of prophets” (14:32).  

Paul’s Terminology 

We know the Corinthian church as a whole did “not lack any spiritual gift” (1:7). We also know it included a large number of women (7:1-40; Acts 18:8, 10),¹³ Unless Cornelius had an all-male household, “the circumcised believers who came with Peter were astonished” when unbaptized women spoke in tongues (Acts 10:45-48) and praised God. See Acts 2:7, 12; 8:13; 9:21 for examples of “astonished.” Chloe among them (1:11). In order to fully explore this text and the role women played in the early church assembly, it is first beneficial to examine the terms Paul chose to use in 14:34-35.  First, according to the standard Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other translations,¹⁴

 The NRSV treats “brothers” as “brothers and sisters.”  The New Century Version (NCV), the New Testament for Everyone (NTE), Easy To Read Version (ERV), the Common English Bible (CEB), Christian Standard Bible (CSB), Names of God (NOG), Tree of Life Version (TLV), New Living Translation (NLT), Expanded Bible (EXB), The Voice (Voice), and New International Reader’s Version (NIRV)  treats the texts as “brothers and sisters” (12:1; 14:6, 20, 26, 39). The ESV does the same only in footnotes. The New Revised Standard Catholic Version Edition (NRSCVE) has “brothers and sisters” in 12:1; 14:6, 20. The only two places the NRSCVE does not translate adelphos as “brothers and sisters” is 14:26 and 14:39. In these two texts the translation is “friends.” “The pl. can also mean brothers and sisters.” Bauer, W., F. W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and E.W. Gingrich, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature 3^rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 18. Robert Banks, Paul’s Idea of Community: The Early House Churches in their Historical Setting. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 122-123. “Use of this term (brethren JJ) does not mean that Paul speaks here to the male members of the church only, for in his writing this term embraces ‘sisters’ as well.” Mark Strauss, Linguistic and Hermeneutical Fallacies in the Guidelines Established at the conference on Gender-Related Language in Scripture. JETS 41/2 (June 1998), 253. “When ἀδελφοί carries this inclusive sense (men and women JJ), it seems that the most accurate translation would be ‘brothers and sisters.’ This not a concession to a feminist agenda.  Rather it is exactly what the term meant in its first-century context.”

D. A. Carson, The Inclusive Language Debate: A Plea for Realism. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1998), 130-131, 156.  “But there is plenty of unambiguous evidence, both in the New Testament and outside of it, that ‘brothers’ very often meant what we mean by ‘brothers and sisters.’ “ the word “brothers” adelphoi (ἀδελφοί)¹⁵

 1 Cor 1:10; 2:1; 3:1; 8:13; 10:1, 14; 11:33; 12:1; 14:6, 20, 39; 15:1, 50, 58; 16:15, 20; Phil 1:11; 4:1. 

Sometimes the singular use of “brother” demands the inclusion of women because of context (1 Cor 8:11, 13; Matt 5:23). can mean brothers or brothers and sisters.  When Paul was addressing a singular male or female, he used aner (ἀνὴρ) for the male and gune (γυνὴ) for the female.¹⁶ Paul conceded in 1 Cor 11:4-5 the women prayed and prophesied provided they had a head covering.  If he was opposed to the women prophesying in the assembly (11:4-5) he should have made it clear by using sigato as he had with the tongue speakers, prophets and the women of 14:34-35. The women prophets could have been unmarried (Acts 21:8-9) or married.  When Paul wanted his readers to know he was addressing males, ¹⁷ Sometimes even aner can include women (Jas 1:12). The NIV attempted to clarify the meaning of the text by translating it “one” instead of “man” even though the text used aner. In John 6:10, the NIV attempted to translate a problem text using andres. Jesus said: “Have the people (anthropous) sit down.”  There was plenty of grass in that place, and they sat down (about five thousand men (andres) were there).   he chose the plural word andras (ἄνδρας 1 Tim 2:8; Acts 20:30; Titus 1:6).   When he was addressing females, he chose the plural word gynaikas (γυναῖκας 1 Tim 2:9; 3:13).  The use of “brothers” meaning only “males” must be determined by the context. ¹⁸ Three examples of the use of “brothers” not including women: (1) the representatives of the churches in 2 Cor 8:23 and 9:3, 5; (2) Paul referred to the Sanhedrin as “my brothers” in Acts 23:1, 6; (3) Paul met with the Jewish leaders and called them “my brothers” (Acts 28:17). In both Acts 23:6 and 28:17, Paul used a phrase (ἄνδρες ἀδελφοί) that indicates he was talking to men and not women.  With ἄνδρες used before ἀδελφοί, Paul’s intended audience was declared but sometimes context demands exceptions (Acts 1:16; 15:7). At times adelphos appears in the singular and the translators include “sisters.” An example of the singular including “sister” is found in 1 Thess 4:6 (ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ). In this example ἀδελφὸν is a singular masculine accusative. (CEB: NIV; NRSV; MSG; NRSVCE).  Jesus’s use of singular “brother” in Matt 5:23 is another example. In English the masculine can include feminine (policeman; fireman; chairman; sportsmanship).  In several texts, Paul acknowledged both male and female prophets/tongue speakers.¹⁹ Paul’s continued combining “brothers and sisters” in his second letter to the Corinthians. In 2 Cor 6:16-18, Paul connects a series of three Old Testament quotations (Ezek 37:27; Isa 52:11; 2 Sam 7:14) in a chiastic form of ABBA. In 6:16, Paul writes what God is going to do: (A) He would “live” and “walk” among his people and “be their God” and they would be his “people.” Before he declares something similar in 6:18, there are two commands in 6:17 that form the middle of the chiastic form: (B) “Come out from them and be separate.” (B) “Touch no unclean thing.”  In 6:18, Paul returns to what God is going to do: (A) “I will be a Father to you, and you will be my sons and daughters, (kai thugateras καὶ θυγατέρας) says the Lord Almighty.” The source of Paul’s quotation is found in 2 Sam 7:14, but Paul added “and daughters” to the quotation to show the equality he saw in God having both “sons” and “daughters” as equal sharers in his future covenant. This was not the only time Paul adapted an Old Testament text to fit his purpose (Eph 4:8/Ps 68:18. In the following, Paul changed singular to plural: Rom 3:18/Ps 35:1; Rom 4:7-8/Ps 32:1-2; Rom 10:15/Isa 52:7).In the context of 2 Samuel 7, God told David he would have an heir who would “build a house for my name” (7:13). Paul altered the quote by changing “his” to “you,” making “son” plural (sons), adding “says the Lord Almighty” and adding “daughters.” God is called the “almighty” two times in the context (7:8, 27).  It is the “house” or “temple” metaphor that led Paul to say: “What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols? For we are the temple of the living God” (2 Cor 6:16).  Those who make up the temple of the living God reject idolatrous ways.  He explained spiritual gifts to the “brothers and sisters” (12:1) just as he had done in his final teachings to the “brothers and sisters” (11:33) regarding the Lord’s supper. ²⁰

 Luke 14:26 γυναῖκα καὶ τὰ τέκνα καὶ τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς καὶ τὰς ἀδελφὰς

                        wife    and children and          brothers   and        sisters

Mark 10:30 ἀδελφοὺς καὶ ἀδελφὰς καὶ μητέρας 

                    brothers   and sisters   and mothers

Luke 21:16 ἀδελφῶν καὶ συγγενῶν καὶ  φίλων,

                   brothers   and relatives  and friends

In Greek, ἀδελφοί (adelphoi) is the plural of ἀδελφός (adelphos). It is a combination of two words: α + δελφύς (delphys) and means “from” and “womb.”  The masculine (adelphos) and the feminine (adephe) are different forms of the same root (adelph). The plural form (adelphoi) could refer to a group of men or a group of men and women depending on the context.  Greek is different than English because in English you have two different roots (bro and sis). In Luke 14:26 and Mark 10:30, it is “brothers and sisters,” but in Luke 21:16, it is only “brothers” which would have to include sisters. Luke is not saying “sisters” would not betray. The NIV has “brothers and sisters” in Luke 21:18. In Matt 10:37, father, mother, son, and daughter are mentioned. In Acts 16:40 Paul met with the “brothers” in Lydia’s house. In Phil 3:1, 13, 17 and 4:1 he addressed the “brothers” including Euodia and Syntyche in 4:2.  Sometimes scriptures will use brothers and sisters in the same sentence, but it is used with the connecting word “or.” See ὁ ἀδελφὸς ἢ ἡ ἀδελφὴ in Jas 2:15 and 1 Cor 7:15.

William Webb, Slaves, Women & Homosexuals: Exploring the Hermeneutics of Cultural Analysis. (Downers Grove; InterVarsity Press, 2001), 143. “For instance, in Romans (8:29 JJ) Christ’s exalted status of the firstborn among many brothers uses the term brothers in a generic sense to include women believers.” 

In the context of the disruptive assembly in 1 Corinthians 14, ²¹ On occasion Paul used anthropos meaning all mankind and translated “people” in the NIV. See 1 Tim 2:1 (πάντων ἀνθρώπων: “all people”), 1 Tim 2:4 (πάντας ἀνθρώπους: “all people”) and 2 Tim 2:2 (πιστοῖς ἀνθρώποις: “reliable people”) as examples. Paul used the term brothers ²² Paul had addressed the “brothers and sisters” in 12:1. When Luke mentioned Paul’s stay in Corinth, (Acts 18:18), he specifically mentioned the “brothers and the sisters” (CEB; NIV; ESV footnote). After the normal introduction to the letter (1:1-9), Paul emphasized he was addressing the “brothers and sisters” in 1:10 and 1:11 and the emphasis on the “brothers and sisters” continues throughout the letter.  He closed the letter with the same emphasis.  He encouraged them to “stand firm” and “give themselves (brothers and sisters) to the work of the Lord” (15:58). He urged them to submit to such people as the household of Stephanas (16:15-16). In a respectable manner, along with Paul, the “brothers and sisters” in Ephesus sent their greetings (16:20-21). With “brothers and sisters” mentioned before and after 1 Corinthians 14, there is nothing in the context of 1 Corinthians 14 that would prohibit 14:6, 20, 26 and 39 from including men and women.  at the beginning (14:6), in the middle (14:20, 26), and at the end of his corrections (14:39) ²³ John Mark Hicks, Women Serving God: My Journey in Understanding Their Story in the Bible. (Private published) 2020, 85-86.  Hicks believes brothers (14:6, 20, 26, 39) includes men and women as it does in other texts. to refer to both men and women.  Note: Various translations even use the terms “brothers and sisters” (NIV 2011; NRSV; CEB; NLT).   When Paul wanted to use a general word referring to mankind (both men and women), he chose the word anthropos (ἄνθρωπος).  In 14:2-3 this term is translated “people.”

Second, in addition to the Greek word adelphoi (ἀδελφοί) Paul also uses other words when referring to both men and women. Specifically, in 12:7-10 he uses the terms “each one,” “to one” and “to another” in his initial explanation of gifts (12:7-10).  The literal translation of 14:5 is: “I want every one of you to speak in tongues…” (literally: “all of you” πάντας ὑμᾶς). In 14:23-24, Paul mentions that when “the whole²⁴ The reference to the “whole church” (ἐκκλησία ὅλη 1 Cor 14:23) does not necessarily mean “every member” any more than the “whole town” (ὅλη ἡ πόλις Mark 1:33) meant “every citizen” in Capernaum.  church ²⁵  The “whole church” coming together implies there were other times they did not, but rather met in smaller groups.  Because of the size of a city it would not have been practical for the whole church to come together every time. Since some of the cult groups met on a monthly basis the early church could have followed this model.  Robert Banks, Paul’s Idea of Community: The Early House Churches in their Historical Setting. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 33-42. This arrangement is implied at the beginning of the church in Acts 2:43-47. They met “together in the temple courts” and “broke bread in their homes.” See Acts 4:23, 31.   (14:23a) comes together, everyone (πάντες) speaks in a tongue” ²⁶ 1 Pet 4:7-11: “be clear minded and self-controlled…love each other…offer hospitality…each one should use whatever gift he has received to serve others…if anyone speaks, he should do it as one speaking the very words of God…”  Was speaking the only gift women could not use?  (14:23b).  The literal Greek translation of 14:31 is: “you can all (πάντες) prophesy one by one so that all (πάντες) may learn and all (πάντες) be encouraged.”  In 14:26, “each of you” (ἕκαστος) is followed by various activities done in the assembly. ²⁷ Paraphrase of 1 Corinthians 11-14:
Every woman who prophesies (11:5) when the church comes together, (11:18, 20) edifies the church and strengthens the church (14:4, 26), in addition to instructing and encouraging (14:31).  In the church (14:19) or when the whole church comes together (14:23), everyone is prophesying (14:24a) so a sinner will fall down and worship God (14:24b-25). When the church comes together (14:26), prophets should weigh what is said (14:29). You may prophesy, but not when someone else is speaking—you must take turns (14:31). 

Paul’s correction of the women in 14:34-35 is prefaced by his corrections to all the believers involved in the assembly, consequently men and women in the Corinthian church could well have been and probably were involved in three specific areas: 

(1) teaching ²⁸ Lois (grandmother) and Eunice (mother) contributed to Timothy’s sincere faith that still lived in him (2 Tim 1:5-7; 3:14). 
(2) prophesying
(3) speaking in tongues 

The Roles of Women in the Assembly

Women as Teachers ²⁹ None of the lists of gifts found in Eph 4:11-13, Rom 12:6-8 and 1 Cor 12:27-30 indicate there were gender limitations. Paul urged the believers who had the gift of teaching to teach (Rom 12:7). Paul believed those filled with knowledge should instruct others (Rom 15:14).  In 2 Tim 2:24, Paul described the “Lord’s servant” as one who must be “able to teach” (διδακτικόν) and used the same word for the overseers (1Tim 3:2). There is nothing in the context of 2 Tim 2:24 that would limit the “Lord’s servant” from including women.  In fact, the “evil desires” (ἐπιθυμίαις ποικίλαις 2 Tim 3:6) the women have been swayed by are similar to the “evil desires of youth” (νεωτερικὰς ἐπιθυμίας 2 Tim 2:22) that Paul told Lord’s servant to flee. Women teachers are supported in Acts 18:26; 21:9 and 1 Cor 11:4-5.   

In 14:26a, Paul wrote: “When you come together, (2^nd person plural) each of you (ἕκαστος) has a hymn or word of instruction (didache)…” ³⁰ Teaching through hymns was for everyone (Col 3:16; Eph 5:19). Teaching (didache) was for everyone (Col 1:18) including Timothy (2 Tim 4:2 “careful instruction”) and elders (Tit 1:9 “trustworthy message”). The term “you” refers back to the “brothers and sisters.”  If Paul had been limiting the activities of 14:26-33 to men only, he could have easily used the term andras (ἄνδρας) as he did in 1 Tim 2:8 when directing his comments to the men.  He then closes the discussion of the assembly telling the “brothers and sisters” to prophesy and speak in tongues (14:39). 

In other writings, Paul used similar terminology as he instructed believers in different situations.   The spiritual gifts he lists in Rom 12:6-13 were addressed to “brothers and sisters” (Rom 12:1) and “every one of you” (Rom 12:3).  Throughout his letter to the Romans, Paul mentioned “brothers and sisters” (1:13; 7:1,4; 8:12,29; 10:1; 11:25; 12:1; 14:13; 15:14, 30; 16:14,17).  Paul declared “brothers and sisters” were “competent to instruct ³¹ νουθετεῖν is translated “instruct.”  This same word is used for Paul teaching the elders from Ephesus (Acts 20:31) and the Corinthians (1 Cor 4:14). The word has been translated as admonish (ASV), teach (CEB, NLT), instruct (ESV, NRSV, NIVI).  one another” because they were “filled with knowledge” (Rom 15:14).  The word for instruct (νουθετεῖν) comes fromνουθετέω(noutheteo) and is the same word used to describe Paul’s admonition to the Ephesian elders (νουθετῶν) in Acts 20:31 (translated warn).  In fact, the entirety of 1 Thessalonians 5³² 1 Thess 5:1, 4, 12, 14, 25, 27  addresses the “brothers and sisters,” and part of their instruction is to warn (νουθετεῖτε) different groups of people (1 Thess 5:14).  Paul told the “brothers and sisters” (2 Thess 3:13) not to associate with anyone who did not obey the “instructions” (ὑπακούει τῷ λόγῳ) of the letter but to warn (νουθετεῖτε) them as they “would a fellow believer” (3:15).  Note: The noun form of this word warn (νουθεσίαν) appears in 1 Cor 10:11 to describe the function of Torah and is translated “instruction” (ESV; NRSV; RSV; NASV) or “warning” (CEB; NIV). Teaching was seen as an activity (Matt 28:19), and a gift (Rom 12:7).  As Paul taught and admonished (Col 1:28 νουθετοῦντες), all believers were expected to do the same as they sang (νουθετοῦντες) (Col 3:16). ³³ Paul described his ministry as “admonishing and teaching everyone” (νουθετοῦντες πάντα ἄνθρωπον καὶ διδάσκοντες πάντα ἄνθρωπον Col 1:28). Paul used the same words when he told his readers to “teach and admonish one another” (διδάσκοντες καὶ νουθετοῦντες ἑαυτοὺς Col 3:16). Paul believed his ministry of teaching and admonishing could be done by the singing of “psalms, hymns and songs” (Col 3:16c) that everyone was expected to do. The book of Hebrews urged the “brothers and sisters” (Heb 3:1, 12; 10:19; 13:1, 22)³⁴ In Heb 10:19  the writer told the “brothers and sisters “ to “draw near to God” (Heb 10:22), “hold unswervingly to the hope” (Heb 10:23), “spur one another on toward love and good deeds” (Heb 10:24), “not give up meeting together” (Heb 10:25a) and “encouraging one another” (Heb 10:25b). “Encourage” comes from the Greek word παρακαλέω (parakaleo) which means to admonish, exhort, cheer or comfort.  Paul used the word in Rom 12:1; 1 Cor 1:10; 16:15; Eph 4:1; 1 Tim 2:1; 1 Thess 4:1,10; 5:14).   to be teachers and go “beyond the elementary teachings about Christ” (Heb 5:12; 6:1).³⁵ When Paul addressed the different gifts, he said they were “given to each of us” (Rom 12:6). This does not necessarily mean “everyone” received gifts (1 Cor 12:27-31), but it does indicate the gifts did not have gender limitations. One of the gifts was “teaching” which was to be used—“then teach” (Rom 12:7). Paul did not divide the gifts into “male gifts” and “female gifts.”  Paul closed the letter with a strong “urging” (Παρακαλῶ) to the “brothers and sisters” (Rom 16:17).   Paul urged Timothy to take what he had taught him to “entrust to reliable people” (anthropos)³⁶  ἀνθρώποι.  Paul used the anthropos three times in 1 Tim 2:1-5 and context would demand the inclusion of women (2 Tim 3:2; Acts 17:30). The women at Paul’s “side” could have easily been involved in teaching (Phil 4:3; Rom 16:3, 12b). The admonition for older women to teach younger women instead of Timothy could possibly be related more to purity rather than gender (1 Tim 4:12; 5:1-2). Additional uses of ἀνθρώποι are 1 Tim 2:1, 4; 4:10; 6:5, 9,16; 2 Tim 3:2, 8, 13, 17; Tit 1:14; 2:11; 3:2, 8, 10.  Anthrōpous always refers to men and women in the pastorals (plural form). Since women are commanded to learn, they are also empowered to teach once they have learned.  who would “teach others” (2 Tim 2:2). By choosing to use the word anthropos (mankind) instead of andres (men), Paul did not make a gender distinction, therefore it is highly unlikely that Timothy would have interpreted the directive otherwise.   If the “reliable people” ³⁷ The older women (Titus 3:3) were to be “teachers of good” (kalodidaskalous/καλοδιδασκάλους)which could easily correspond to the “reliable people” (pistois anthropois/πιστοῖς ἀνθρώποις) who were to teach (didaxai διδάξαι) in 2 Tim 2:2. If the older women were to teach younger women, they needed to be “reliable teachers.”  included men and women, the “others” they were to teach most likely included men and women.³⁸ Paul could have practiced 2 Tim 2:2 with Aquila and Priscilla before he left them in Ephesus (Acts 18:19). Soon after Paul’s departure, Luke recorded their teaching Apollos (Acts 18:24-26). This could be an example of entrusting to “reliable people” who would teach others.  The commission to “teach others” does not appear to have limitations of “who” or even “where” they can teach. The women and men mentioned in Rom 16:6-15 could have been among the entrusted “reliable people.”   

Women as Prophets  

Prophets, including women prophets, held prominent places in Torah.  Centuries before Joel had predicted women prophets (Joel 2:28-30).³⁹ Peter said the Joel prophecy would take place in the “last days” (Acts 2:17a). Isa 2:1-3 and Mic 4:1 predicted the fulfillment of the word of the Lord going out of Jerusalem would take place in the “last days.”  Heb 1:1-2 connects the “last days” with the coming of Jesus. See 2 Tim 3:1; Jas 5:3; 2 Pet 3:3. As a well-educated Jew and believing everything “written in the Prophets” (Acts 24:14; 28:23), Paul would have been well versed in the teaching of the Jewish law.⁴⁰ (Paul had a good knowledge of the minor prophets: Hos 1:10; 2:13 (Rom 9:25-28), Hos 13:14 (1 Cor 15:55), Hab 2:4 (Rom 1:17; Gal 3:11), and Mal 1:2-3 (Rom 9:13).  The Old Testament prophets were important to the early church (Acts 7:42; 13:40; 15:15; 26:27; Heb 1:1-2).   In Rom 10:13, Paul quotes Joel 2:32 so it can be assumed that Paul was aware of Joel 2:28-31. According to the text, prophets were foundational in the early church (Acts 13:1; Eph 2:20; 3:5), and we know that Paul was aware of Philip’s four, prophesying, unmarried daughters (Acts 21:8). ⁴¹ It could be assumed the four unmarried daughters were involved in the church in Caesarea (Acts 21:8).  Luke used a present active participle (προφητεύουσαι) indicating “action in progress” on the part of the four daughters. See Acts 21:9.  That being the case, women prophesying in other locations would not have surprised Paul. According to 11:4-5, women prophets were active within the assembly of the Corinthian church.

In the list of spiritual gifts prophecy is listed second only to the apostles (12:28; Eph 4:11).  The purpose of prophecy was instruction (learning: μανθάνω) and encouragement (14:31),⁴²  πάντες μανθάνωσιν (learning 14:35; 1 Tim 2:11) καὶ πάντες παρακαλῶνται (urging 1:10; 1 Tim 2:1) therefore prophets were not restricted to “prediction” of events (Acts 11:28; 21:9-10; Luke 2:36), but also served as instructors involved in teaching (14:31).⁴³ Because prophets are listed after the apostles, it can be assumed that Paul was not referring to Torah prophets. Prophecy by its nature assumes an audience.  Paul, when addressing the disorderly assembly, refers to the possibility of “everyone” speaking in tongues and “everyone” prophesying when the whole church came together (14:23-24).  Note:  This statement is bracketed between the “brothers and sisters” of  14:20 and 14:26. However, when done properly and the prophets spoke in turn, everyone was instructed, strengthened, encouraged and comforted (14:3, 31). The term “all” (πάντες) seems to include men and women because the word is mentioned three times in 14:31.   

Because prophecy included teaching, “others” were instructed to “weigh carefully” (Job 29:21; 1 Thess 5:21) what was said by other prophets (14:29).⁴⁴ Some of the prophets could have been false prophets (1 Kgs 13:18; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 John 4:1; Acts 20:30; 2 Cor 11:13).  We do not know who the “others” were, but we can consider four possibilities: ⁴⁵.Bartlett, Men and Women in Christ, 172.

(1) Other men or women prophets (11:5; 14:20, 26, 39; Acts 21:9).
(2) Those who had the gift of “discernment between spirits” (διακρίσεις diakrisis 12:10 NRSV). There is no evidence the gifts of Rom 12:7-11, Eph 4:7-11, 1 Peter 4:7-11; 1 Cor 12:27-31 and 1 Cor 12:10 had gender limitations.
(3) All of the assembled believers. 
(4) The women of 14:34-35. 

All four possibilities include women.  This produces a dilemma if 14:34 is used as a proof text that women should remain silent within the church assembly.  That reasoning simply does not fit the context of 14:26-33.  If anyone (man or woman) with the gift of “discernment between spirits” heard a prophet speak something untrue, they were instructed to correct it.  

Women as Tongue Speakers 

In his initial explanation of gifts, Paul states “now to each one (ἑκάστῳ δὲ) the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good” (12:7).  In 13:1, he mentions “the tongues of men.” The actual Greek text Is: ταῖς γλώσσαις τῶν ἀνθρώπων.  He did not choose the word for males (andres ἄνδρας) in this text, but rather a term that included both “men and women” (anthropos) therefore indicating both men and women had the gift of tongues.  This understanding flows into the issues of 1 Corinthians 14.

Conclusion

After his discourse on the greatness of love in 1 Corinthians 13, Paul opens the discussion about the chaotic assembly in 1 Corinthians 14 by saying: “Follow the way of love and eagerly desire the gifts of the spirit especially prophecy” (14:1).  He closes by telling the “brothers and sisters” to “be eager to prophesy” (14:39) as long as they did it in a “fitting and orderly way” (14:40). There is nothing in the text (14:1/14:39) that limits the “gender” of who had the gifts.

Because of his Jewish education,⁴⁶ Paul’s mentor (Gamaliel) was known to have a high respect for women—even more so than most rabbis of his day (Acts 5:34-39; 22:3).  Paul would have been well aware the female leaders of his heritage such as Miriam (Exod 15:20; Micah 6:4 NIV, GNT), Deborah (Judg 4:4-5 prophet and judge), Noahiah (Neh 6:14), Isaiah’s wife (Isa 8:3),⁴⁷ Isa 8:3 refers to “prophetess.”  Paul could have known about Anna (Luke 2:36) because he was close friends with Luke.  and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:13-20; 2 Chron 34:22-28).  He would have known that Israel was taught by both male priests and male/female prophets, and that women served at the entrance of the tent of meeting (1 Sam 2:22).   Assuming Paul saw Torah⁴⁸ Rom 7:12; 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; 2 Tim 3:16  as a learning and teaching tool for the church,⁴⁹ The importance of teaching is mentioned throughout the New Testament: 1 Cor 14:26 (διδαχὴν); Col 3:16 (διδάσκοντες); 1 Tim 4:13 (διδασκαλίᾳ); Acts 13:1 (διδάσκαλοι); Tit 2:3 (καλοδιδασκάλους); 1 Tim 3:2 (διδακτικόν). Some did not see the importance of the Old Testament because it was “nailed to the cross” (Col 2:14).  and judging from his writing, he did not believe gender was a restricting factor for being a prophet, tongue speaker, or teacher.

When considered in context, the “women” of 14:34-35 are not all women, but disruptive women⁵⁰ Paul did not demand the silence of women in 1 Cor 11:4-5, but he require that they respect the cultural understanding of the veil. If women of 14:34-35 were not to speak in the assembly of the church, then two questions beg answers: (1) Why did Paul not tell the women of 1 Cor 11:4-5 to “shut up” (sigato) like he did the tongue speakers and prophets (14:28, 30) because they were women? (2) Why did Paul allow something in 1 Cor 11:4-5 that he was going to stop in 14:34-35?    who were speaking while others were speaking. Paul declared the wives⁵¹ Oster, 1 Corinthians, 357. “If these two terms gunaikes and andres are kept away from marriage, then the gunaikes of 14:34 could include daughters (regardless of age) who were still in the home or a male (father, brother, or Roman guardian).”  should do the same as the tongue speakers and prophets: Stop their chaotic behavior!⁵² Sigato was different than hesukeia (1 Tim 2:11). Sigato meant to totally cease the talking and hesukeia referred to demeanor (“silent” meant total silence and “very quiet” showed demeanor Acts 21:10; 22:2). Luke set the stage for what happened using four Greek words in Acts (1) In 21:31, he used the word for confusion (synchynnetai). (2) In 21:34a, he used the word for shouting or crying out (epephonoun). (3) In 21:34b, he used the word for disturbance or uproar (thorybon). (4) In 21:35, he used the word for violence (bian).  The women were told to be silent because their conduct was not conducive to an “edifying” assembly (14:4-5) and not because they were women (Hab 2:20).

The use of the terms “to speak” (14:27-32), “silent” (14:28, 30, 34), in the church (14:28, 35) and “submit” (14:32, 34) indicate the emphasis is the abuse of speech and not speech in general. 

Issues Related to 1 Corinthians 14:34-35⁵³ Some maintain Paul only mentioned what the women were doing in 11:5 and did not attempt to approve or disapprove, but in 14:35 he condemned the involvement of women in the assembly.  This understanding does not make Paul consistent in his teaching. Paul’s concern for women in both texts was two-fold: the need to respect the culture and the need not to contribute to a chaotic and disorderly assembly. If he had intended to teach that women could not speak in the assembly in 1 Corinthians 14, then the use of a veil in 1 Corinthians 11 would have been a non-issue because they were to “be silent” (sigato).  Assuming Paul had a consistent and coherent approach to the role of women, it is not plausible to believe Paul used 14:34-35 to counter and correct 11:4-5. 

Part Two

Introduction

While Part One of this article serves as the basis for understanding the role of women in the early church assembly, Part Two will examine additional issues addressed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 14.  

Two issues Related to the Study of Textual Criticism 

Textual criticism seeks to restore the text in its original written form by the examination of ancient manuscripts. Two major issues mentioned in 14:33b-35 deserve consideration:

 (1)  Location of 14:34-35.
(2)  Location of 14:33b.

1.  Location of 14:34-35  ⁵⁴ Some believe 14:34-35 was a quotation from the opposition and that Paul used it as a rhetorical device and not his personal belief. It is the opposite of the behavior of women he approved in 11:4-5.  There are other texts in 1 Corinthians that appear to be quotations from another source (1:12; 6:12; 7:1; 8:1; 10:23; 15:12). 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 seems to be too large to have been added as a marginal note (on papyrus paper) at a later date.

In some ways 14:34-35 appears to be a digression and is often thought to be ⁵⁵ Some scholars believe 14:34-35 was a later interpolation by a scribe and was not Pauline. There are two possible explanations for why it was left out.  First, it could have been accidently left out by the scribe. He could have written the word church in 14:33 (ἐκκλησίαις) and accidently dropped down the word church in 14:35b (ἐκκλησίᾳ). Second, the scribe decided to rearrange the material for a better flow. There are four reasons why it could have been added by a scribe: (1) It cannot be harmonized easily with 11:5. (2) It was a scribal commentary that was later added to the text. (3) Failure to explain what law was in 14:34 as he did in 14:21 and 9:9 supports the text from being non-Pauline. (4) An examination of the two texts (1 Tim 2:12) reveal two different problems and not two different teachings.  Paul taught the same role of women in both texts as he sought a common culture for all churches. See Philip B. Payne, Man and Woman, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009for a detailed discussion of 14:34-35 being an interpolation (253-267) and 14:26-40 being a chiastic construction without 14:34-35.The following is Payne’s conclusion: (267) “The thesis that 1 Cor 14:34-35 is an interpolation fits the external and the internal evidence far better than any other thesis. If 1 Cor 14:34-35 is a non-Pauline interpolation, it does not carry apostolic authority and should not be used as such to restrict he speaking ministries of women, nor should it influence the exegesis of other NT passages.”    an interpolation⁵⁶ Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Revised Edition (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 780-781.  not representative of Paul’s teaching.  Regardless, by placing 14:34-35⁵⁷ The silence of the women in 11:5 was not to be forever, but only until they abided by the custom of a head covering. For the authenticity of 14:34-35 see the following article: Curt Niccum,” The Voice of the Manuscripts on the Silence of Women: The External Evidence for 1 Cor 14.34-5” New Testament Studies Vol 43, 1997, 242-255. 1 Cor 14:34-35 appears in all available manuscripts in one place or the other. This supports Paul as the author and not a scribe.  at the end of the chapter, the flow of 14:33 into 14:36 is more coherent. The issues with the prophets begin in 14:29, and the excuse for their disruptive behavior while prophesying in the assembly is confronted in 14:32-33.  Additional information is given in 14:36-39 before Paul’s “therefore conclusion” in 14:40.    For our studywe will leave 14:34-35 where it is found and not put it at the end of the chapter.    

2. Location of 14:33b  ⁵⁸ Linda L. Belleville, Women Leaders and the Church: Three Crucial Questions. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000), 157-158.

Ancient manuscripts did not have spaces, punctuation, chapters or verses, therefore the discussion and subsequent disagreement as to the proper placement of 14:33b is challenging.  If “as in all the congregations of the saints” (14:33b) is attached to 14:33a, “God is not a God of disorder,”⁵⁹ “Worship should reflect the character of God being worshipped, and in Paul’s view the biblical God, unlike pagan deities, was a God of both order (not chaos) and peace (not competition for airtime).”  Ben Witherington, Conflict & Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 286. makes a non-chaotic assembly universal.⁶⁰ “For God is not a God of disorder but of peace—as in all the congregations of the Lord’s people.” (14:33 NIVI 2011).  If 14:33b is attached to the later, the phrase “women remain silent,” is a universal teaching for women in the assembly regardless of the circumstances.⁶¹ The NASB, NLT, and NIV (2011) do not attach 14:33b to the women of 14:34 whereas the RSV, ASV, ESV, CEB, NIV (1983) and NRSV do.  The placing 14:33b with 14:34-35 in some translations could have  possibly been influenced by the anti-feminist movement.   Attaching 14:33b to 14:33a is probably the best choice for the following reasons:

1. Paul used this pattern in other places (4:17; 7:17; 11:16). 
2. Paul established the common culture for the church in 14:26-33a and 14:33b was the   logical conclusion.  Placing 14:33b with 14:34 is redundant (“as in all the churches ⁶²  ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις (“the churches”) is the Greek in both places. of the saints women should remain silent in the churches”) (RSV).⁶³ The following translations put 14:33b with 14:34: ASV, CEB, ESV, NRSV.   
3. Paul desired a non-chaotic assembly in “all the churches of the saints,” but Paul’s issue with the women in 14:34-35 was a local issue. 
4. When 14:34-35 is placed at the end of 1 Corinthians 14, 14:33b Is not included.   Note:  The NIV (2011) corrected 14:34a from the NIV (1983) by adding it to 14:33a. ⁶⁴ The NKJV and the NLT agree with the NIVI, but RSV, ASV, CEB, ESV and the NRSV does not.

Six Interpretive Questions Concerning the Women of 14:34-35

(1) Who are the women of 14:34-35?
(2) What does “to speak” (λαλεῖν) mean?
(3) What is the meaning of “allowed” (οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπεται)?
(4)What is the meaning of submission?
(5) What is the meaning of disgrace?       
(6) Is the restriction of women absolute/perpetual or temporary?

Who Are the Women of 14:34-35?  

Paul makes a three-fold declaration about women being silent in 14:34-35: 

(1) “should remain silent.” (Σιγάτωσαν)
(2) “not allowed to speak.” (οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπεται αὐταῖς λαλεῖν)
(3) “disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church.” (αἰσχρὸν γάρ ἐστιν γυναικὶ  λαλεῖν ἐν ἐκκλησίᾳ)

There are three possibilities as to the identification of the “women” of 14:34-35.⁶⁵ The women could have been unbelievers and did not know how to conduct themselves in a Christian assembly (1 Cor 7:12)  

(1) They were among the “others” (14:29a) weighing “carefully what is said” (14:29b) and were doing so in a chaotic manner.  
(2) They were married women listening to the prophets (not their husbands) or interpreters and wanted to know more by asking them questions.
(3) They were wives of the prophets because they⁶⁶ The women could have been other married women who were questioning the prophets and not their husbands. They were instructed to ask their non-prophet husbands at home what the prophets were teaching.  had “their own husbands at home” (14:35).  When examined closely, 14:34-35 appears to be a continuation of the discussion of the gift of prophecy and not a separate subject—women. Paul did not change subjects (prophets) but only who was contributing to the chaos.⁶⁷ The issue was “how” they were asking and whether or not the “questions” were contributing to chaos of the assembly.   It is highly unlikely Paul was referring to “all women” for two reasons: (1) There were unmarried women in the assembly (7:8, 13, 25-28, 39-40), and probably women married to non-believers. In those cases, they could not “ask their own husbands.”⁶⁸ 1 Cor 7:2 ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα (his wife) Eph 5:33 ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα (his wife) 2:5 ἰδίοις ἀνδράσιν (their husbands) John 4:16 ἄνδρα σου (your husband) Acts 5:10 ἄνδρα αὐτῆς (her husband)1 Peter 3:1, 5 ἰδίοις ἀνδράσιν (your husbands). If the four unmarried daughters of Philip were in the assembly at Corinth and had questions, who were they to ask for answers?  The imperative (ἐπερωτάτωσαν) to “ask their own husbands” assumes the husband could answer. (2) Paul provided instructions for the men and women (“brothers and sisters”) tongue speakers and prophets who had been speaking (14:26-33). The women prophets and tongue speakers were not commanded to be silent. 

Quite possibly this entire situation had been influenced by their pagan backgrounds and the oracles at Delphi who were asked questions and provided answers.  Perhaps the women thought they could not get the information they wanted unless they asked the questions of those who were speaking.  It is interesting that at Delphi a female priestess was also addressed as a prophetess.  However contrary to the Christian assembly, the oracle at Delphi did not speak until a question was asked. ⁶⁹ Witherington, Conflict & Community in Corinth,  276-290.  

What Does “to Speak” (λαλεῖν) Mean? ⁷⁰ “Then indeed the women from such teaching, kept silence; but now there is apt to be great noise among them, much clamor and talking, and nowhere so much as in this place. They may all be seen here talking more than in the market, or at the bath. For, as if they came hither for recreation, they are all engaged in conversing upon unprofitable subjects. Thus all is confusion, and they seem not to understand, that unless they are quiet, they cannot learn anything that is useful. For when our discourse strains against the talking, and no one minds what is said, what good can it do to them? To such a degree should women be silent, that they are not allowed to speak not only about worldly matters, but not even about spiritual things, in the church.”  John Chrysostom (Homily 9 First Timothy)  

Perhaps two of the most troubling terms in 14:34-35 are “to speak” and “to learn” (“to learn”: ASV; NKJV; CEB; “know”:  NRSV; “inquire”: NIV).  The infinitive “to speak” (used twice in 14:34-35) is different from the “speaking” mentioned three times in 14:27-29 that was done by both men and women. ⁷¹

 In 14:27 λαλεῖ, (Pres. Act. Ind. 3^rd Per. Sing); 14:28 λαλείτω (Pres. Act. Imp. 3^rd Per. Sing.);

14:29 λαλείτωσαν (Pres. Act. Imp. 3^rd Per. Pl.). The “speaking” women in 14:34-35 were disruptive⁷² The “disruptive” nature of the “speaking” of the women in 14:34-35 was a different “disruptive” issue than the disruption found in 14:27-31.  The problems of tongue speakers/prophets and the women of 14:34-35 are separated by 14:32-33.    and were told to “shut up!”  This term as used in 14:34-35 has at least six possible meanings: 

(1) Chattering.⁷³ “We may cite a specific example of the guild of Zeus Hypsistos, a religious association of the first century B.C. that had rules against factions, chattering, and indicting one another.” Ben Witherington, Making a Meal of It: Rethinking the Theology of the Lord’s Supper. (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2007), 51.  In this case the term is not referencing “formal” speaking but rather disruptive “chattering.”⁷⁴ BADG, 582 “…of informal communication ranging from engagement in small talk to chattering and babbling.” (See 1 Tim 6:20 and 2 Tim 2:16 kenophonia)  Note:  This would have especially unsettling in a small house church.  
(2) Disturbing. Perhaps these women were speaking loudly and incorrectly.  Just as with chattering would hinder an edifying assembly, so would loud and disturbing speaking.
(3)  Women were asking their husbands/prophets or other prophets questions they should have been asking at home. Their questions could have been out of place for five reasons: 

(a) They were inappropriate for the setting. 
(b) The questions were unlearned. Note: Generally, women married at a young       age and stayed home with the children.  As a result, they had limited opportunities to receive an education and their social exposure was         somewhat restricted.⁷⁵ Roman women had enough education to appreciate their husbands but could not express their own opinions.  In public they were to appear in unspoken agreement with their husbands.  
(c) Possibly the women were asking questions at the same time the prophets       were prophesying (14:30).  
(d) The women were using the wrong tone of voice in asking the questions. 
(e) The questions were insincere.

(4) Paul had used this same infinitive “to speak” when referring to both tongues and prophecy (14:27-29). Men and women were involved in both. 
(5) “To speak” is a present active infinitive (λαλεῖν).⁷⁶ The present active infinitive to speak (λαλεῖν) is used twice whereas Paul used an aorist active infinitive for “to learn” (μαθεῖν). By contrasting the present infinitive with the aorist infinitive would be supportive of the continuous action of “to speak.” It implies the “speaking” was “continuous” or “on going,” but even so its meaning is best determined by context more than verb tense.  Continuous talking was not conducive for an edifying assembly in a small house church.

Paul’s statement forbidding women to speak in the assembly is closely linked with his instruction for them “to learn” (“inquire” in NIV and “learning” in ASV; CEB; ESV; NKJV) by asking “their own husbands at home.” Viewed in context with 1 Corinthians 11, once the women had learned, they were qualified or allowed to speak. Paul had a short-term solution to the problem: Keep silent! (sigao) Paul’s long-term solution: Learn! ⁷⁷ “to speak out” (TLV), “not allowed to interrupt” (TPT), “talking when they should be listening” (MSG) “not to take part in the discussion” (TLB), “not allowed to talk” (CEB).

(6)  Some women could have been responsible for “weighing” what the prophets were saying but they were asking questions in an unacceptable manner. Perhaps Paul was correcting a privilege and not as restricting the women speaking in general (see 11:4-5). 

What is the Meaning of “Allowed” (Permit) 

The term “allowed” (οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπεται)?⁷⁸ ἐπιτρέπεται is a pres, pass, ind, 3^rd per, sing from ἐπιτρέπω. The same word is used in 1 Tim 2:12 and is a present, active, indicative 1^st person singular (ἐπιτρέπω). (14:34 NIV; CEB) means “permission” ⁷⁹ Matt 8:21; Mark 5:13; John 19:38; Acts 26:1. The Jerusalem Bible: “Women are to remain quiet at meetings since they have no permission to speak, they must keep in the background as the Law itself lays down.” (“permitted” NRSV; ESV; NKJV; ASV; RSV).  Compared to other words Paul could have chosen in this text: “I urge” (1:10; 4:16; 16:15) or imperatives such as “forbid” (14:39), “urge” (translated “command”), and “give” (1 Tim 4:11; 5:7; 6:17), this term is rather weak. According to the text, he was acquainted with the imperative form of permit because Luke recorded Paul as saying: “Please (ἐπίτρεψόν) let me speak to the people” (Acts 21:39).  Paul had used the imperative form of “remain silent” in 14:34a (Σιγάτωσαν), therefore it would have been natural for him to follow with a second imperative instead of this present indicative (allowed).⁸⁰  ἐπιτρέπεται pres pas ind 3^rd per sing. “for it is not permitted unto them to speak” ASV.  In such case, 14:34 would have flowed well with three imperatives in a row (silent, allowing/permitting and submission).  Quite possibly, the commands to be “silent” and “ask” were imperatives in a “learning” context (14:35a μαθεῖν). (See 14:31 and the instructional (μανθάνωσιν) nature of prophecy for learning (CEB, NKJV, ASV).  For whatever reason he chose to close with an imperative (“must be in submission” ὑποτασσέσθωσαν)⁸¹ ὑποτασσέσθωσαν pres pas imp 3^rd per pl (“be submissive”)  (14:34b). 

Even though most translations interpret 14:34b as “They (speaking of the women in 14:34a) are not permitted (allowed) to speak,” the verb is actually third person singular (ἐπιτρέπεται)—not third person plural.  In the versions that do recognize permit (allow) as singular, the phrase is rendered “for it is not permitted unto them to speak” (οὐ γὰρ ἐπιτρέπεται αὐταῖς λαλεῖν: ASV; NLT; KJV).  If the latter is the proper way of translating 14:34b, the law is the subject of permit and not women.  This stands in contrast to the word choice in 14:35 when Paul instructed the wives to ask (ἐπερωτάτωσαν) their husbands (ἰδίους ἄνδρας) at home.  In this case he used a third person plural imperative in addition to the two third person plural imperatives (silent and submission: Σιγάτωσαν and ὑποτασσέσθωσαν). Paul was not forbidding women tongue speakers and prophets from “speaking,” but ONLY the women who were creating chaos by “speaking” or asking questions of the speakers.   Note:  The term “ask” (ἐρωτάω 14:35; Phil 4:3; 1 Thess 4:1; 5:12), (ἐπερωτάω, “interrogate” Acts 5:27; 23:34) is a strong word⁸² It was used by the high priest interrogating Jesus (Mark 14:60).  which Paul only uses one other time (ἐπερωτάω, Rom 10:20).  Perhaps the women were coming across harshly or in a condemning manner. 

Given the options, 14:34-35 is probably best read with the limitations of WHO (wives of prophets or other married women) and WHEN (prophesy was being used)—not ALL WOMEN during the entire assembly. Just as the tongue speakers were told WHEN to speak (interpreters were present) and the prophets were told WHEN to prophesy (no one else was prophesying), the women were told WHEN to be quiet (others were speaking or prophesying).  

What is the Meaning of Submission?

The Greek word submission (hupotasso ὑποτάσσω) is a combination of two words: hupo and tasso. Hupo means “under” and tasso means “rank” or “arrange.” Used together, the two terms translate “to put in subjection, to rank under.”⁸³

Andrew Bartlett, Men and Women in Christ. (London: InterVarsity Press, 2019), 36. In Luke 7:8 the centurion said: ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπός εἰμι ὑπὸ (hupo) ἐξουσίαν τασσόμενος (tasso)

                         I        man        am      under.     authority     ranked    

^“ For I also am a man set under authority” (NRSV)

 ^“For I also am a man placed under authority” (NKJV) Believers are called to see others as more important than themselves (Rom 12:10; Phil 2:3).⁸⁴ Bartlett, Men and Women in Christ, 34-36. (1 Cor 9:19; 16:13-16; 2 Cor 4:5; Gal 5:13; Eph 4:1-2; Col 1:7; 3:12-14) The term “submissive”⁸⁵ Submission is something done by us and not to us. The little boy was told to go and sit in the corner. He said: “I am sitting down on the outside, but I am standing up on the inside.” can be “reflexive,”⁸⁶

 “This middle reflexive understanding of the passive occurs when the ones subjugated are humans who are willingly submissive.  For instance, in Jas 4:7, it is preferable to read the aorist passive imperative as “submit yourselves therefore to God”. (KJV; NIV; NRSV), rather than “be submissive” (NEB; Phillips).  Similarly, in 1 Pet 2:13 should read “submit yourselves to every human authority” (KJV; NIV; NEB; NASB), rather than “be subject” (RSV).  Likewise, in Heb 12:9, the readers are exhorted “submit ourselves (ὑποταγησόμεθα) to our spiritual Father” (JB), rather than “be subject” (KJV; NASB; NRSV).

Whether the passive form of ὑποτάσσω carries a middle reflexive sense must be determined by the context.  As mentioned, in the NT only God and Christ have power and authority to subjugate and they do so only when the object is antagonistic…

The primary focus of “submit yourselves” must be on attitude.  One can be forced to obey the government, or a slave can be made to obey a master, but Christian submission is a voluntary surrender of one’s own rights, a placing of oneself at the disposal of, or in the service of, someone else.  Submission is a willing deference.” Kenneth V. Neller, “Submission in Eph 5:21-33” in Essays on Women in Earliest Christianity Vol 1 ed by Carroll D. Osburn (Joplin: College Press, 1995), 247-249.  and in this case something the women did to themselves rather than something that was done to them. ⁸⁷ The verb form of submission (ὑποτασσέσθωσαν) found in 1 Cor 14:34 and is a present passive imperative 3^rd person plural. The passive and middle have the form. As a middle the word can be reflexive (done to oneself) and the passive is something done to the person.  Context determines the meaning to be either middle or passive.  The NASV translates 14:34b: “let them subject themselves just as the Law also says.” Paul used the term in this manner at the close of the letter as he emphasized the importance of submission to the household of Stephanos (16:15b-16 NIV). ⁸⁸ Paul told his readers (brothers and sisters) to submit (ὑποτάσσησθε) to the household of Stephanas and “to everyone who joins in the work and labors at it” (16:15-16).  It could be assumed Stephanas did not have an all-male household.   

Consider the following options for the use of submission in 14:34: 

(1) Paul does not refer to a certain law as he did in 9:9 and 14:2. Since no such law is found in Torah perhaps he was referring to Gen 3:16. ⁸⁹ Possibility Paul is referring to a law that did not exist but the Jews of Jesus’s day believed it did so Paul seized on this understanding.  Paul is not above taking a Hebrew text and changing it to fit his purpose.  The classic example is Psa 68:18 (Eph 4:8) which he changed from “received gifts” to “gave gifts.” In cases where Paul referred to Torah (9:9: Deut 25:4; 14:21: Isa 28:11-12), he followed with a quotation. He did the same in 2 Corinthians (8:13: Exod 16:18; 9:9: Psa 119:9). There were no explicit statements in the Torah that would keep women from speaking in the assembly. Besides Gen 3:16 there are three other possibilities for the meaning of “the Law says.” (1) Num 12:14, Miriam was a disruptive prophet and Numbers was considered one of the five books of the “law” (Num 12:1, 8). (2) Roman Law. (3) Oral law (Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Berakoth 24a; Josephus, Against Apion 2.24; Mishnah, Aboth 1.5).   
(2) Because man (andres) or husband is not mentioned in the text, man could not have been the object of the submission.  That being the case, perhaps they were to submit to the “learning” (14:35a) they were to receive.⁹⁰ The New Testament teaches mutual submission (Matt 20:26-28; Phil 2:3; 1 Pet 5:4-5), voluntary submission (1 Pet 2:13; Heb 12:9) and willing deference (Col 3:18; Eph 5:21-22; 1 Pet 3:1). There are times that submission was hierarchical (Rom 8:20; 1 Cor 15:27-28; Phil 3:21). Bartlett, Men and Women in Christ, 34. “Being willing to take the lowest place for the good of others is at the heart of Christian love and living.  Jesus taught this and also live it, both in his ministry and supremely at the cross (Mark 10:42-43; John 13:1-17;15:12-17; Phil 2:5-8). Because Paul’s view of the world is Christ-centered, this theme is often picked up in his teachings.”  
(3) They were to submit to the concept of a non-chaotic assembly.

What is the Meaning of Disgrace?⁹¹ Osburn, Women in the Church, 204-205. Paul is dealing with a particular problem in Corinth.  The problem is not one of disdain for creation order or family order, but one of church order. Far from being intolerant, Paul neither teaches nor suggests in this text anything regarding hierarchism or female subjection. The real issue in not the extent to which a woman may participate in the work and worship of the church, but the manner…that these particular wives, like the uncontrolled tongue-speakers and prophets at Corinth, must defer to the assembly by voluntarily yielding to orderliness.”   

In 1 Cor 14:35, Paul uses the term “dishonor” (καταισχύνει)⁹² Καταισχύνει is a pres act 3^rd sing from kαταισχύνω and is composed of two words κατ-αισχύνω.  to address conduct not gender.  He uses it when he was addressing men and women prophesying (11:4-5).  He uses the term “disgrace” (αἰσχρός aischros) regarding women who cut their hair (11:6) and men with long hair (ἀτιμία) (11:14).⁹³

   11:4 καταισχύνει τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτοῦ.

                dishonors    the   head     of his

      11:5 καταισχύνει τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτῆς

              dishonors     the    head    of her

      11:6 εἰ δὲ αἰσχρὸν         γυναικὶ τὸ κείρασθαι 

              it is disgrace   for a woman to be shorn

      11:14 ἀτιμίααὐτῷ

            disgrace to him    

      14:35 αἰσχρὸν γάρ ἐστιν 

                disgrace   for   it is

According to 1 Cor 11:6 and 14:35 the women were guilty of disgraceful behavior (αἰσχρὸν) and the men were guilty (ἀτιμία αὐτῷ) of participating in disgraceful behavior in 11:14.   It was “disgraceful” (αἰσχρὸν) for a woman to speak disruptively”<sup>94

 34 “</sup>The women should keep quiet in these church meetings. They are not allowed to speak out but should be under authority, as the Law of Moses says. ³⁵ If there is something they want to know, they should ask their own husbands at home. It is shameful for a woman to speak up like that in the church meeting.” East-to-Read

^34-36 Wives must not disrupt worship, talking when they should be listening, asking questions that could more appropriately be asked of their husbands at home. God’s Book of the law guides our manners and customs here. Wives have no license to use the time of worship for unwarranted speaking. Do you—both women and men—imagine that you’re a sacred oracle determining what’s right and wrong? Do you think everything revolves around you? Message. In this translation the women are identified as “wives” and the issue with them was “disruption” and not gender.  (14:35),⁹⁵ The Greek words καταισχύνει, αἰσχρὸν and ἀτιμία are closely related.  The word disgraceful is used in Eph 5:12 (shameful) and Titus 1:11 (dishonest).   but instead should ask questions of their husbands at home. ⁹⁶ Paul used the word “for” (gar) to connect the imperative (ἐπερωτάτωσαν) with the principle of “for it is disgraceful” in 14:35b.  Women prophets and tongue speakers (14:27-31) could “speak in the church” and were not guilty of being “disgraceful” (14:35b) provided they abided by Paul’s directions. Paul regulated but did not terminate women speaking.⁹⁷ Keener, Paul, Women &Wives, 77.   “Be silent” was directed at disturbance⁹⁸ In Acts 15:12,” the whole assembly became silent as they listened to Barnabas and Paul telling…”. It was not until “they finished” that James addressed the whole assembly. In Acts 15:12, the Greek says Ἐσίγησεν δὲ πᾶν τὸ πλῆθος. It could be translated “when whole assembly shut up!  In Acts 15:13, the Greek says: Μετὰ δὲ τὸ σιγῆσαι αὐτοὺς.  It could be translated “but when they had shut up” (NIV “When they finished…”) The dual use of sigato shows the meaning and use of the word.  In the context of 1 Corinthians 14, Paul used the word sigato with tongue speakers, prophets and wives of the prophets. When someone was speaking, the rest of the assembly was to shut up. After the speaker had finished speaking other people were allowed to talk.  in the assembly, whether done by men or women.⁹⁹ It was not unusual for someone to ask a question in the assembly, but a disruptive question or a question that showed a lack of understanding was not welcomed.  The emphasis on “learn” indicates the question was not a good one or this was not the place to ask the question. Regarding questions, the Jewish world and the Greco/Roman world operated differently.  In Judaism, the prophet received a message from God, relayed the message to the people and the people accepted it in silence.  In the Greco/Roman world, people would inquire from an oracle (such as the one at Delphi near Corinth) about what should be done in any given situation. This difference on how to obtain information could be the background to the women asking questions. 

Is the Restriction of Women in 1 Corinthians 14 Absolute/Perpetual or Temporary? ¹⁰⁰ He had been with them for 18 months but did not teach perpetual silence on the part of women.  The failure of the women to respect culture in 1 Corinthians 11 and the failure to conduct the assembly in an orderly manner in 1 Corinthians 14 are both issues that arose after he left Corinth.                   

If the instructions of 1 Corinthians are absolute/perpetual, Paul appears to contradict himself regarding the behavior allowed in 1 Corinthians 11 and 1 Corinthians 14.  In 11:2-16 Paul used the indicative mood (statement of fact) to deal with the how heads were covered or uncovered. Women prayed and prophesied in 11:4-5 provided they wore a veil.

Consistency requires that both the women tongue speakers (14:27) and women prophets (14:29) were allowed to speak under certain conditions.

Problems/Solutions in the Corinthian Assembly

Corrections Allowed Resumption

1 Cor 8:1 to 14:40 is really the heart of the divisions and quarrels expressed in 1:10-11 (3:3; 11:18). ¹⁰¹ From 7:1 to 14:40, Paul answered three (7:1, 25; 8:1; 12:1) of the six questions (16:1, 12) indicated by “now about” (Περὶ δὲ: peri de). The believers were not taking into consideration how their insensitive conduct was affecting others in: eating (8:1-11:1; 8:11-13 NIV),¹⁰² The church must function as a body by deferring or being sensitive to one another (12:12-31) and not a group of individuals each wanting their own way. “Brother or sister” was mentioned twice. the wearing of veils (11:2-16), and the Lord’s supper (11:17-34; 11:21,33).¹⁰³ When the Jews celebrated the Passover, it involved one or two families, and this influenced how the early church handled the Lord’s supper. Craig Keener and Walton, John (eds). “Banquets in Corinth.”   Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016), 2004-2005.   This same “insensitive or non-deferring attitude” was demonstrated by the conduct of the tongue speakers, prophets and wives of the prophets (14:1-40). All of the gifts were to be used in a “fitting and orderly way” (14:40).¹⁰⁴ Oster, 1 Corinthians, 362. “The first pillar is the proper honor and appropriate reflection of the one triune God (12:4-11) who does not distribute gifts in a disorderly way (14:33).  The second pillar is the loving (agape) concern for others and their needs demonstrated concretely in choices made in the style and conduct of the assembly.  On these two pillars rests Paul’s theology of corporate worship in 1 Corinthians.”    Since Paul did not instruct the use of these gifts to stop, it can be assumed both the men and women resumed prophesying, speaking in tongues, singing hymns, giving interpretations and giving words of instruction (14:3, 26, 39) when the corrections were made.

Resumption of Questions?

The question/answer method of teaching was a popular method of learning (14:36; 15:29); therefore, asking questions was not necessarily out of place. As with the above gifts, If the women resumed asking questions, they should not create chaos.   

Separate Assembly Issues

Even though the assemblies of 1 Corinthians 11 and 1 Corinthians 14 were the same, Paul chose to separate the issues by subject matter.  

(1) 1 Corinthians 11 was a cultural/creational issue and 1 Corinthians 14 was an issue of chaos.  As such the former was easier to address than the latter. 
(2)  The foundation supplied by 1 Corinthians 12 and 13 were probably more essential in addressing the chaos of 1 Corinthians 14 than the issues of 1 Corinthians 11.  

Conclusion 

Prophets Rebuked

Paul explains the purpose of the gifts in 1 Corinthians 12, but then further addresses the abuses of tongue speakers and prophets in 14:27-33.  After his comments about women (14:34-35) Paul again shifts his focus to the prophets and directs two questions to them:

 (1) Did the word of God originate with you (14:36)?  
(2) Are you the only people it has reached? 

 The obvious answer to both questions is “no.”  Both questions were a continuation of his discussion of the chaotic problems caused by the prophets (14:29-33).  If they thought they were great, (“prophet or otherwise gifted by the Spirit” 14:37) they needed to acknowledge Paul was an inspired apostle who had written the “Lord’s commands” (14:37).  In closing Paul acknowledged there was a place for prophecy and speaking in tongues, (14:39) however they must be done “in a fitting and orderly way” (14:40).

The Corrected Assembly

The information provided in 1 Corinthians 14 is more “correctional” than “instructive.”  The corrections (adjustments) were not intended to keep the prophets, tongue speakers, or wives from speaking, but rather all of this should be done in a non-chaotic manner.  It was not WHO (men and women) was doing WHAT (speaking in tongues or prophesying), but HOW the events were transpiring.    Paul’s remarks concerning the conduct in the assembly began in 11:2 and conclude with 14:40. In 14:33, Paul had said that “God is not a God of confusion, but of peace.”  How appropriate that his concluding remarks would reflect that same characteristic (14:40).  

Restoring the Purpose of the Assembly

The study of 1 Corinthians shows how easily it was for the early church to forget the purposes and objectives of the church assembly.  Quite possibly the principles outlined in 1 Corinthians 14 can serve as a model and a wake-up call for the church assembly today.